Hormonal contraception and risk of cancer

Human Reproduction Update

Volumn 16, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 631-650

  Cibula, D ^a   Gompel, A ^b   Mueck, A O ^c   La Vecchia, C ^d   Hannaford, P C ^e   Skouby, S O ^f   Zikan, M ^a   Dusek, L ^g  

^a CHARLES UNIVERSITY   (Czech Republic)

^b HÔTEL DIEU   (France)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TÜBINGEN   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

^e UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN   (United Kingdom)

^f UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

^g MASARYK UNIVERSITY   (Czech Republic)

Author keywords

Cervical cancer; Colorectal cancer; Endometrial cancer; Hormonal contraception; Ovarian cancer

Indexed keywords

BRCA1 PROTEIN; BRCA2 PROTEIN; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT;

ARTICLE; BENIGN TUMOR; BREAST CANCER; CANCER RISK; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; COHORT ANALYSIS; COLORECTAL CANCER; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; EMBASE; ENDOMETRIUM CANCER; FAMILY HISTORY; GENE MUTATION; HETEROZYGOTE; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HORMONAL CONTRACEPTION; HUMAN; LIVER CANCER; LIVER TUMOR; LUNG CANCER; MEDLINE; OVARY CANCER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK ASSESSMENT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; UTERINE CERVIX CANCER;

BREAST NEOPLASMS; CASE-CONTROL STUDIES; COHORT STUDIES; COLORECTAL NEOPLASMS; CONTRACEPTIVES, ORAL, HORMONAL; ENDOMETRIAL NEOPLASMS; FEMALE; GENES, BRCA1; GENES, BRCA2; HUMANS; LIVER NEOPLASMS; LUNG NEOPLASMS; META-ANALYSIS AS TOPIC; NEOPLASMS; OVARIAN NEOPLASMS; RISK ASSESSMENT; TIME FACTORS; UTERINE CERVICAL NEOPLASMS;

EID: 78649363020     PISSN: 13554786     EISSN: 14602369     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmq022     Document Type: Article

References (186)

1. ACS. Cancer Facts and Figures. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, 2006.
2. Althuis MD, Brogan DR, Coates RJ, Daling JR, Gammon MD, Malone KE, Schoenberg JB, Brinton LA. Hormonal content and potency of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk among young women. Br J Cancer 2003;88:50-57.
3. Amant F, Moerman P, Neven P, Timmerman D, Van Limbergen E, Vergote I. Endometrial cancer. Lancet 2005;366:491-505.
4. Anderson GL, Judd HL, Kaunitz AM, Barad DH, Beresford SA, Pettinger M, Liu J, McNeeley SG, Lopez AM. Effects of estrogen plus progestin on gynecologic cancers and associated diagnostic procedures: the Women's Health Initiative randomized trial. J Am Med Assoc 2003;290:1739-1748.
5. Antoniou AC, Rookus M, Andrieu N, Brohet R, Chang-Claude J, Peock S, Cook M, Evans DG, Eeles R, Nogues C et al. Reproductive and hormonal factors, and ovarian cancer risk for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers: results from the International BRCA1/2 Carrier Cohort Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:601-610.
6. Barnett GC, Shah M, Redman K, Easton DF, Ponder BA, Pharoah PD. Risk factors for the incidence of breast cancer: do they affect survival from the disease? J Clin Oncol 2008;26:3310-3316.
7. Beral V, Hannaford P, Kay C. Oral contraceptive use and malignancies of the genital tract. Results from the Royal College of General Practitioners' Oral Contraception Study. Lancet 1988;2:1331-1335.
8. Beral V, Hermon C, Kay C, Hannaford P, Darby S, Reeves G. Mortality associated with oral contraceptive use: 25 year follow up of cohort of 46 000 women from Royal College of General Practitioners' oral contraception study. Br Med J 1999;318:96-100.
9. Beral V, Bull D, Green J, Reeves G. Ovarian cancer and hormone replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet 2007;369:1703-1710.
10. Beral V, Doll R, Hermon C, Peto R, Reeves G. Ovarian cancer and oral contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of data from 45 epidemiological studies including 23,257 women with ovarian cancer and 87,303 controls. Lancet 2008;371:303-314.
11. Bosetti C, Negri E, Trichopoulos D, Franceschi S, Beral V, Tzonou A, Parazzini F, Greggi S, La Vecchia C. Long-term effects of oral contraceptives on ovarian cancer risk. Int J Cancer 2002;102:262-265.
12. Bosetti C, Bravi F, Negri E, La Vecchia C. Oral contraceptives and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update 2009;15:489-498.
13. Bostick RM, Potter JD, Kushi LH, Sellers TA, Steinmetz KA, McKenzie DR, Gapstur SM, Folsom AR. Sugar, meat, and fat intake, and non-dietary risk factors for colon cancer incidence in Iowa women (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1994;5:38-52.
14. Brinton LA, Hoover RN. Estrogen replacement therapy and endometrial cancer risk: unresolved issues. The Endometrial Cancer Collaborative Group. Obstet Gynecol 1993;81:265-271.
15. Brohet RM, Goldgar DE, Easton DF, Antoniou AC, Andrieu N, Chang-Claude J, Peock S, Eeles RA, Cook M, Chu C et al. Oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk in the international BRCA1/2 carrier cohort study: a report from EMBRACE, GENEPSO, GEO-HEBON, and the IBCCS Collaborating Group. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25:3831-3836.
16. Bu SZ, Yin DL, Ren XH, Jiang LZ, Wu ZJ, Gao QR, Pei G. Progesterone induces apoptosis and up-regulation of p53 expression in human ovarian carcinoma cell lines. Cancer 1997;79:1944-1950.
17. Casagrande JT, Louie EW, Pike MC, Roy S, Ross RK, Henderson BE. 'Incessant ovulation' and ovarian cancer. Lancet 1979;2:170-173.
18. CASH. The reduction in risk of ovarian cancer associated with oral-contraceptive use. The Cancer and Steroid Hormone Study of the Centers for Disease Control and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. N Engl J Med 1987;316:650-655.
19. CGHFBC. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Lancet 1996;347:1713-1727.
20. CGHFBC. Familial breast cancer: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 52 epidemiological studies including 58,209 women with breast cancer and 101,986 women without the disease. Lancet 2001;358:1389-1399.
21. Cheng W, Liu J, Yoshida H, Rosen D, Naora H. Lineage infidelity of epithelial ovarian cancers is controlled by HOX genes that specify regional identity in the reproductive tract. Nat Med 2005;11:531-537.
22. Cogliano V, Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F. Carcinogenicity of human papillomaviruses. Lancet Oncol 2005a;6:204.
23. Cogliano V, Grosse Y, Baan R, Straif K, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F. Carcinogenicity of combined oestrogen-progestagen contraceptives and menopausal treatment. Lancet Oncol 2005b;6:552-553.
24. Colditz GA. Oral contraceptive use and mortality during 12 years of follow-up: the Nurses' Health Study. Ann Intern Med 1994; 120:821-826.
25. Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Speizer FE. Risk factors for breast cancer according to family history of breast cancer. For the Nurses' Health Study Research Group. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88:365-371.
26. Cotterchio M, Kreiger N, Theis B, Sloan M, Bahl S. Hormonal factors and the risk of breast cancer according to estrogen-and progesterone-receptor subgroup. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003;12:1053-1060.
27. Cramer DW, Welch WR. Determinants of ovarian cancer risk. II. Inferences regarding pathogenesis. J Natl Cancer Inst 1983;71:717-721.
28. Cummings SR, Tice JA, Bauer S, Browner WS, Cuzick J, Ziv E, Vogel V, Shepherd J, Vachon C, Smith-Bindman R et al. Prevention of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: approaches to estimating and reducing risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009;101:384-398.
29. Dickey RP, Stone SC. Progestational potency of oral contraceptives. Obstet Gynecol 1976;47:106-112.
30. Dolle JM, Daling JR, White E, Brinton LA, Doody DR, Porter PL, Malone KE. Risk factors for triple-negative breast cancer in women under the age of 45 years. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:1157-1166.
31. Dorjgochoo T, Shu XO, Li HL, Qian HZ, Yang G, Cai H, Gao YT, Zheng W. Use of oral contraceptives, intrauterine devices and tubal sterilization and cancer risk in a large prospective study, from 1996 to 2006. Int J Cancer 2009;124:2442-2449.
32. dos Santos Silva I, Swerdlow AJ. Recent trends in incidence of and mortality from breast, ovarian and endometrial cancers in England and Wales and their relation to changing fertility and oral contraceptive use. Br J Cancer 1995;72:485-492.
33. Dumeaux V, Alsaker E, Lund E. Breast cancer and specific types of oral contraceptives: a large Norwegian cohort study. Int J Cancer 2003; 105:844-850.
34. Edmondson HA, Henderson B, Benton B. Liver-cell adenomas associated with use of oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 1976;294:470-472.
35. Fathalla MF. Incessant ovulation-a factor in ovarian neoplasia? Lancet 1971;2:163.
36. Fernandez E, La Vecchia C, D'Avanzo B, Franceschi S, Negri E, Parazzini F. Oral contraceptives hormone replacement therapy the risk of colorectal cancer. Br J Cancer 1996;73:1431-1435.
37. Fernandez E, La Vecchia C, Franceschi S, Braga C, Talamini R, Negri E, Parazzini F. Oral contraceptive use and risk of colorectal cancer. Epidemiology 1998;9:295-300.
38. Fernandez E, La Vecchia C, Balducci A, Chatenoud L, Franceschi S, Negri E. Oral contraceptives and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 2001;84:722-727.
39. Figueiredo JC, Haile RW, Bernstein L, Malone KE, Largent J, Langholz B, Lynch CF, Bertelsen L, Capanu M, Concannon P et al. Oral contraceptives and postmenopausal hormones and risk of contralateral breast cancer among BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers and noncarriers: the WECARE Study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2010;120:175-183.
40. Folger SG, Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Bernstein L, Ursin G, Berlin JA, Daling JR, Norman SA, Strom BL, Weiss LK et al. Risk of breast cancer associated with short-term use of oral contraceptives. Cancer Causes Control 2007;18:189-198.
41. Furner SE, Davis FG, Nelson RL, Haenszel W. A case-control study of large bowel cancer and hormone exposure in women. Cancer Res 1989;49:4936-4940.
42. Gaffield ME, Culwell KR, Ravi A. Oral contraceptives and family history of breast cancer. Contraception 2009;80:372-380.
43. Gill JK, Press MF, Patel AV, Bernstein L. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast carcinoma in situ (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2006; 17:1155-1162.
44. Grabrick DM, Hartmann LC, Cerhan JR, Vierkant RA, Therneau TM, Vachon CM, Olson JE, Couch FJ, Anderson KE, Pankratz VS et al. Risk of breast cancer with oral contraceptive use in women with a family history of breast cancer. J Am Med Assoc 2000;284:1791-1798.
45. Graham JD, Mote PA, Salagame U, van Dijk JH, Balleine RL, Huschtscha LI, Reddel RR, Clarke CL. DNA replication licensing and progenitor numbers are increased by progesterone in normal human breast. Endocrinology 2009;150:3318-3326.
46. Greer JB, Modugno F, Allen GO, Ness RB. Short-term oral contraceptive use and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. Am J Epidemiol 2005; 162:66-72.
47. Grimes DA, Economy KE. Primary prevention of gynecologic cancers. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;172:227-235.
48. Gwinn ML, Lee NC, Rhodes PH, Layde PM, Rubin GL. Pregnancy, breast feeding, and oral contraceptives and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. J Clin Epidemiol 1990;43:559-568.
49. Haile RW, Thomas DC, McGuire V, Felberg A, John EM, Milne RL, Hopper JL, Jenkins MA, Levine AJ, Daly MM et al. BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers, oral contraceptive use, and breast cancer before age 50. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006;15:1863-1870.
50. Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Spencer TL, Rosner B, Stampfer MJ. A quantitative assessment of oral contraceptive use and risk of ovarian cancer. Obstet Gynecol 1992;80:708-714.
51. Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, Speizer FE. A prospective study of oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer (Nurses' Health Study, United States). Cancer Causes Control 1997;8:65-72.
52. Hannaford P, Elliott A. Use of exogenous hormones by women and colorectal cancer: evidence from the Royal College of General Practitioners' Oral Contraception Study. Contraception 2005;71:95-98.
53. Hannaford PC, Kay CR, Vessey MP, Painter R, Mant J. Combined oral contraceptives and liver disease. Contraception 1997;55:145-151.
54. Hannaford PC, Selvaraj S, Elliott AM, Angus V, Iversen L, Lee AJ. Cancer risk among users of oral contraceptives: cohort data from the Royal College of General Practitioner's oral contraception study. Br Med J 2007;335:651.
55. Heimdal K, Skovlund E, Moller P. Oral contraceptives and risk of familial breast cancer. Cancer Detect Prev 2002;26:23-27.
56. Heinemann LA, Weimann A, Gerken G, Thiel C, Schlaud M, DoMinh T. Modern oral contraceptive use and benign liver tumors: the German Benign Liver Tumor Case-control Study. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 1998;3:194-200.
57. Heinemann K, Thiel C, Mohner S, Lewis MA, Raff T, Kuhl-Habich D, Heinemann LA. Benign gynecological tumors: estimated incidence. Results of the German Cohort Study on Women's Health. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2003;107:78-80.
58. Henderson BE, Casagrande JT, Pike MC, Mack T, Rosario I, Duke A. The epidemiology of endometrial cancer in young women. Br J Cancer 1983;47:749-756.
59. Hogewoning CJ, Bleeker MC, van den Brule AJ, Voorhorst FJ, Snijders PJ, Berkhof J, Westenend PJ, Meijer CJ. Condom use promotes regression of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and clearance of human papillomavirus: a randomized clinical trial. Int J Cancer 2003;107:811-816.
60. Horwitz RI, Feinstein AR. Case-control study of oral contraceptive pills and endometrial cancer. Ann Intern Med 1979;91:226-227.
61. Hulka BS, Chambless LE, Kaufman DG, Fowler WC Jr, Greenberg BG. Protection against endometrial carcinoma by combination-product oral contraceptives. J Am Med Assoc 1982;247:475-477.
62. Huusom LD, Frederiksen K, Hogdall EV, Glud E, Christensen L, Hogdall CK, Blaakaer J, Kjaer SK. Association of reproductive factors, oral contraceptive use and selected lifestyle factors with the risk of ovarian borderline tumors: a Danish case-control study. Cancer Causes Control 2006;17:821-829.
63. IARC. Hormonal Contraception and Post-menopausal Hormonal Therapy. Lyon: IARC, 1999.
64. IARC. Combined estrogen-progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen-progestogen menopausal therapy. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2007;91:1-528.
65. ICESCC. Cervical carcinoma and reproductive factors: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 16,563 women with cervical carcinoma and 33,542 women without cervical carcinoma from 25 epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer 2006;119:1108-1124.
66. Ivarsson K, Sundfeldt K, Brannstrom M, Hellberg P, Janson PO. Diverse effects of FSH and LH on proliferation of human ovarian surface epithelial cells. Hum Reprod 2001;16:18-23.
67. Iversen L, Hannaford PC, Elliott AM. Tubal sterilization, all-cause death, and cancer among women in the United Kingdom: evidence from the Royal College of General Practitioners' Oral Contraception Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;196:447 e1-448.
68. Jernstrom H, Lerman C, Ghadirian P, Lynch HT, Weber B, Garber J, Daly M, Olopade OI, Foulkes WD, Warner E et al. Pregnancy and risk of early breast cancer in carriers of BRCA1 and BRCA2. Lancet 1999;354:1846-1850.
69. Jick SS, Walker AM, Jick H. Oral contraceptives and endometrial cancer. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:931-935.
70. Jordan SJ, Green AC, Whiteman DC, Moore SP, Bain CJ, Gertig DM, Webb PM. Serous ovarian, fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancers: a comparative epidemiological analysis. Int J Cancer 2008; 122:1598-1603.
71. Kabat GC, Miller AB, Rohan TE. Oral contraceptive use, hormone replacement therapy, reproductive history and risk of colorectal cancer in women. Int J Cancer 2008;122:643-646.
72. Kahlenborn C, Modugno F, Potter DM, Severs WB. Oral contraceptive use as a risk factor for premenopausal breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc 2006;81:1290-1302.
73. Kampman E, Potter JD, Slattery ML, Caan BJ, Edwards S. Hormone replacement therapy, reproductive history, and colon cancer: a multicenter, case-control study in the United States. Cancer Causes Control 1997;8:146-58.
74. Kaufman DW, Shapiro S, Slone D, Rosenberg L, Miettinen OS, Stolley PD, Knapp RC, Leavitt T Jr, Watring WG, Rosenshein NB et al. Decreased risk of endometrial cancer among oral-contraceptive users. N Engl J Med 1980;303:1045-1047.
75. Kelsey JL, LiVolsi VA, Holford TR, Fischer DB, Mostow ED, Schwartz PE, O'Connor T, White C. A case-control study of cancer of the endometrium. Am J Epidemiol 1982;116:333-342.
76. Koumantaki Y, Tzonou A, Koumantakis E, Kaklamani E, Aravantinos D, Trichopoulos D. A case-control study of cancer of endometrium in Athens. Int J Cancer 1989;43:795-799.
77. Kreuzer M, Gerken M, Heinrich J, Kreienbrock L, Wichmann HE. Hormonal factors and risk of lung cancer among women? Int J Epidemiol 2003;32:263-271.
78. Kumle M, Weiderpass E, Braaten T, Persson I, Adami HO, Lund E. Use of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk: the Norwegian-Swedish Women's Lifestyle and Health Cohort Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002;11:1375-1381.
79. Kumle M, Alsaker E, Lund E. [Use of oral contraceptives and risk of cancer, a cohort study]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 2003;123:1653-1656.
80. Kumle M, Weiderpass E, Braaten T, Adami HO, Lund E. Risk for invasive and borderline epithelial ovarian neoplasias following use of hormonal contraceptives: the Norwegian-Swedish Women's Lifestyle and Health Cohort Study. Br J Cancer 2004;90:1386-1391.
81. Kune GA, Kune S, Watson LF. Oral contraceptive use does not protect against large bowel cancer. Contraception 1990;41:19-25.
82. La Vecchia C, Tavani A. Female hormones and benign liver tumours. Dig Liver Dis 2006;38:535-536.
83. La Vecchia C, Decarli A, Fasoli M, Franceschi S, Gentile A, Negri E, Parazzini F, Tognoni G. Oral contraceptives and cancers of the breast and of the female genital tract. Interim results from a case-control study. Br J Cancer 1986;54:311-317.
84. La Vecchia C, Ron E, Franceschi S, Dal Maso L, Mark SD, Chatenoud L, Braga C, Preston-Martin S, McTiernan A, Kolonel L et al. A pooled analysis of case-control studies of thyroid cancer. III. Oral contraceptives, menopausal replacement therapy and other female hormones. Cancer Causes Control 1999;10:157-166.
85. La Vecchia C, Altieri A, Franceschi S, Tavani A. Oral contraceptives and cancer: an update. Drug Saf 2001;24:741-754.
86. Lee E, Ma H, McKean-Cowdin R, Van Den Berg D, Bernstein L, Henderson BE, Ursin G. Effect of reproductive factors and oral contraceptives on breast cancer risk in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers and noncarriers: results from a population-based study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008;17:3170-3178.
87. Leppaluoto PA. The pillOC and cervical cancer: the causal association. Acta Cytol 2006;50:704-706.
88. Levi F, La Vecchia C, Gulie C, Negri E, Monnier V, Franceschi S, Delaloye JF, De Grandi P. Oral contraceptives and the risk of endometrial cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1991;2:99-103.
89. Levi F, Pasche C, Lucchini F, La Vecchia C. Oral contraceptives and colorectal cancer. Dig Liver Dis 2003;35:85-87.
90. Lin J, Zhang SM, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE, Lee IM. Oral contraceptives, reproductive factors, and risk of colorectal cancer among women in a prospective cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 2007; 165:794-801.
91. Lipnick RJ, Buring JE, Hennekens CH, Rosner B, Willett W, Bain C, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Peto R, Speizer FE. Oral contraceptives and breast cancer. A prospective cohort study. J Am Med Assoc 1986; 255:58-61.
92. LiVolsi VA, Stadel BV, Kelsey JL, Holford TR. Fibroadenoma in oral contraceptive users: a histopathologic evaluation of epithelial atypia. Cancer 1979;44:1778-1781.
93. Lurie G, Thompson P, McDuffie KE, Carney ME, Terada KY, Goodman MT. Association of estrogen and progestin potency of oral contraceptives with ovarian carcinoma risk. Obstet Gynecol 2007;109:597-607.
94. Lurie G, Wilkens LR, Thompson PJ, McDuffie KE, Carney ME, Terada KY, Goodman MT. Combined oral contraceptive use and epithelial ovarian cancer risk: time-related effects. Epidemiology 2008;19:237-243.
95. Ma H, Bernstein L, Ross RK, Ursin G. Hormone-related risk factors for breast cancer in women under age 50 years by estrogen and progesterone receptor status: results from a case-control and a case-case comparison. Breast Cancer Res 2006;8:R39.
96. Ma H, Wang Y, Sullivan-Halley J, Weiss L, Marchbanks PA, Spirtas R, Ursin G, Burkman RT, Simon MS, Malone KE et al. Use of four biomarkers to evaluate the risk of breast cancer subtypes in the women's contraceptive and reproductive experiences study. Cancer Res 2010;70:575-587.
97. Maheshwari S, Sarraj A, Kramer J, El-Serag HB. Oral contraception and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2007;47:506-513.
98. Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG, Folger SG, Mandel MG, Daling JR, Bernstein L, Malone KE, Ursin G, Strom BL et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2002;346:2025-2032.
99. Martinez ME, Grodstein F, Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Hennekens C, Rosner B, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ. A prospective study of reproductive factors, oral contraceptive use, and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1997;6:1-5.
100. Mathieu D, Kobeiter H, Cherqui D, Rahmouni A, Dhumeaux D. Oral contraceptive intake in women with focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver. Lancet 1998;352:1679-1680.
101. Maxwell GL, Schildkraut JM, Calingaert B, Risinger JI, Dainty L, Marchbanks PA, Berchuck A, Barrett JC, Rodriguez GC. Progestin and estrogen potency of combination oral contraceptives and endometrial cancer risk. Gynecol Oncol 2006;103:535-540.
102. McGuire V, Felberg A, Mills M, Ostrow KL, DiCioccio R, John EM, West DW, Whittemore AS. Relation of contraceptive and reproductive history to ovarian cancer risk in carriers and noncarriers of BRCA1 gene mutations. Am J Epidemiol 2004;160:613-618.
103. McLaughlin JR, Risch HA, Lubinski J, Moller P, Ghadirian P, Lynch H, Karlan B, Fishman D, Rosen B, Neuhausen SL et al. Reproductive risk factors for ovarian cancer in carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations: a case-control study. Lancet Oncol 2007;8:26-34.
104. Medina D, Kittrell FS, Tsimelzon A, Fuqua SA. Inhibition of mammary tumorigenesis by estrogen and progesterone in genetically engineered mice. Ernst Schering Found Symp Proc 2007;1:1109-1126.
105. Milne RL, Knight JA, John EM, Dite GS, Balbuena R, Ziogas A, Andrulis IL, West DW, Li FP, Southey MC et al. Oral contraceptive use and risk of early-onset breast cancer in carriers and noncarriers of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005;14:350-356.
106. Modan B, Hartge P, Hirsh-Yechezkel G, Chetrit A, Lubin F, Beller U, Ben-Baruch G, Fishman A, Menczer J, Ebbers SM et al. Parity, oral contraceptives, and the risk of ovarian cancer among carriers and noncarriers of a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. N Engl J Med 2001;345:235-240.
107. Modugno F, Ness RB, Allen GO, Schildkraut JM, Davis FG, Goodman MT. Oral contraceptive use, reproductive history, and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer in women with and without endometriosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004;191:733-740.
108. Moorman PG, Calingaert B, Palmieri RT, Iversen ES, Bentley RC, Halabi S, Berchuck A, Schildkraut JM. Hormonal risk factors for ovarian cancer in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 2008; 167:1059-1069.
109. Moreno V, Bosch FX, Munoz N, Meijer CJ, Shah KV, Walboomers JM, Herrero R, Franceschi S. Effect of oral contraceptives on risk of cervical cancer in women with human papillomavirus infection: the IARC multicentric case-control study. Lancet 2002;359:1085-1092.
110. Mueck AO, Seeger H. Smoking, estradiol metabolism and hormone replacement therapy. Arzneimittelforschung 2003;53:1-11.
111. Munoz N, Franceschi S, Bosetti C, Moreno V, Herrero R, Smith JS, Shah KV, Meijer CJ, Bosch FX. Role of parity and human papillomavirus in cervical cancer: the IARC multicentric case-control study. Lancet 2002;359:1093-1101.
112. Murdoch WJ, Van Kirk EA. Steroid hormonal regulation of proliferative, p53 tumor suppressor, and apoptotic responses of sheep ovarian surface epithelial cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2002;186:61-67.
113. Narod SA, Dube MP, Klijn J, Lubinski J, Lynch HT, Ghadirian P, Provencher D, Heimdal K, Moller P, Robson M et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002;94:1773-1779.
114. Ness RB, Grisso JA, Klapper J, Schlesselman JJ, Silberzweig S, Vergona R, Morgan M, Wheeler JE. Risk of ovarian cancer in relation to estrogen and progestin dose and use characteristics of oral contraceptives. SHARE Study Group. Steroid Hormones and Reproductions. Am J Epidemiol 2000;152:233-241.
115. Newcomer LM, Newcomb PA, Trentham-Dietz A, Longnecker MP, Greenberg ER. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer by histologic type. Int J Cancer 2003;106:961-964.
116. Nichols HB, Trentham-Dietz A, Hampton JM, Newcomb PA. Oral contraceptive use, reproductive factors, and colorectal cancer risk: findings from Wisconsin. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005; 14:1212-1218.
117. Nichols HB, Trentham-Dietz A, Egan KM, Titus-Ernstoff L, Hampton JM, Newcomb PA. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast carcinoma in situ. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007;16:2262-2268.
118. Nyante SJ, Gammon MD, Malone KE, Daling JR, Brinton LA. The association between oral contraceptive use and lobular and ductal breast cancer in young women. Int J Cancer 2008;122:936-941.
119. Olson JE, Sellers TA, Anderson KE, Folsom AR. Does a family history of cancer increase the risk for postmenopausal endometrial carcinoma? A prospective cohort study and a nested case-control family study of older women. Cancer 1999;85:2444-2449.
120. Ory HW. Mortality associated with fertility and fertility control: 1983. Fam Plann Perspect 1983;15:57-63.
121. Ory H, Cole P, MacMahon B, Hoover R. Oral contraceptives and reduced risk of benign breast diseases. N Engl J Med 1976;294:419-422.
122. Palmer JR, Driscoll SG, Rosenberg L, Berkowitz RS, Lurain JR, Soper J, Twiggs LB, Gershenson DM, Kohorn EI, Berman M et al. Oral contraceptive use and risk of gestational trophoblastic tumors. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:635-640.
123. Parazzini F, Negri E, La Vecchia C, Benzi G, Chiaffarino F, Polatti A, Francheschi S. Role of reproductive factors on the risk of endometrial cancer. Int J Cancer 1998;76:784-786.
124. Parazzini F, Cipriani S, Mangili G, Garavaglia E, Guarnerio P, Ricci E, Benzi G, Salerio B, Polverino G, La Vecchia C. Oral contraceptives and risk of gestational trophoblastic disease. Contraception 2002; 65:425-427.
125. Pasqualini JR. Progestins and breast cancer. Gynecol Endocrinol 2007; 23(Suppl. 1):32-41.
126. Peters RK, Pike MC, Chang WW, Mack TM. Reproductive factors and colon cancers. Br J Cancer 1990;61:741-748.
127. Petitti DB, Porterfield D. Worldwide variations in the lifetime probability of reproductive cancer in women: implications of best-case, worst-case, and likely-case assumptions about the effect of oral contraceptive use. Contraception 1992;45:93-104.
128. Pettersson B, Adami HO, Bergstrom R, Johansson ED. Menstruation span-a time-limited risk factor for endometrial carcinoma. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1986;65:247-255.
129. Phillips LS, Millikan RC, Schroeder JC, Barnholtz-Sloan JS, Levine BJ. Reproductive and hormonal risk factors for ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:1507-1514.
130. Pike MC, Spicer DV. Hormonal contraception and chemoprevention of female cancers. Endocr Relat Cancer 2000;7:73-83.
131. Pike MC, Pearce CL, Peters R, Cozen W, Wan P, Wu AH. Hormonal factors and the risk of invasive ovarian cancer: a population-based case-control study. Fertil Steril 2004;82:186-195.
132. Portman DJ, Symons JP, Wilborn W, Kempfert NJ. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study that assessed the endometrial effects of norethindrone acetate plus ethinyl estradiol versus ethinyl estradiol alone. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:334-342.
133. Potter JD, McMichael AJ. Large bowel cancer in women in relation to reproductive and hormonal factors: a case-control study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1983;71:703-709.
134. Ramcharan S, Pellegrin FA, Ray R, Hsu JP. The Walnut Creek Contraceptive Drug Study: A Prospective Study of the Side Effects of Oral Contraceptives. Bethesda: National Institutes of Child Health and Human Development, 1981.
135. Riman T, Dickman PW, Nilsson S, Correia N, Nordlinder H, Magnusson CM, Persson IR. Risk factors for epithelial borderline ovarian tumors: results of a Swedish case-control study. Gynecol Oncol 2001;83:575-585.
136. Risch HA, Marrett LD, Jain M, Howe GR. Differences in risk factors for epithelial ovarian cancer by histologic type. Results of a case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 1996;144:363-372.
137. Rodriguez GC, Walmer DK, Cline M, Krigman H, Lessey BA, Whitaker RS, Dodge R, Hughes CL. Effect of progestin on the ovarian epithelium of macaques: cancer prevention through apoptosis? J Soc Gynecol Investig 1998;5:271-276.
138. Rohan TE, Miller AB. A cohort study of oral contraceptive use and risk of benign breast disease. Int J Cancer 1999;82:191-196.
139. Rooks JB, Ory HW, Ishak KG, Strauss LT, Greenspan JR, Hill AP, Tyler CW Jr. Epidemiology of hepatocellular adenoma. The role of oral contraceptive use. J Am Med Assoc 1979;242:644-648.
140. Rosenberg L, Palmer JR, Zauber AG, Warshauer ME, Lewis JL Jr, Strom BL, Harlap S, Shapiro S. A case-control study of oral contraceptive use and invasive epithelial ovarian cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1994;139:654-661.
141. Rosenberg L, Zhang Y, Coogan PF, Strom BL, Palmer JR. A case-control study of oral contraceptive use and incident breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 2009;169:473-479.
142. Rosenblatt KA, Thomas DB, Noonan EA. High-dose and low-dose combined oral contraceptives: protection against epithelial ovarian cancer and the length of the protective effect. The WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives. Eur J Cancer 1992;28A:1872-1876.
143. Rosenblatt KA, Gao DL, Ray RM, Nelson ZC, Thomas DB. Contraceptive methods and induced abortions and their association with the risk of colon cancer in Shanghai, China. Eur J Cancer 2004;40:590-593.
144. Rosenblatt KA, Gao DL, Ray RM, Nelson ZC, Wernli KJ, Li W, Thomas DB. Monthly injectable contraceptives and the risk of all cancers combined and site-specific cancers in Shanghai. Contraception 2007;76:40-44.
145. Rosenblatt KA, Gao DL, Ray RM, Nelson ZC, Wernli KJ, Li W, Thomas DB. Oral contraceptives and the risk of all cancers combined and site-specific cancers in Shanghai. Cancer Causes Control 2009;20:27-34.
146. Royar J, Becher H, Chang-Claude J. Low-dose oral contraceptives: protective effect on ovarian cancer risk. Int J Cancer 2001;95:370-374.
147. Russo J, Moral R, Balogh GA, Mailo D, Russo IH. The protective role of pregnancy in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2005;7:131-142.
148. Salvesen HB, Akslen LA, Albrektsen G, Iversen OE. Poorer survival of nulliparous women with endometrial carcinoma. Cancer 1998; 82:1328-1333.
149. Sanderson M, Williams MA, Weiss NS, Hendrix NW, Chauhan SP. Oral contraceptives and epithelial ovarian cancer. Does dose matter? J Reprod Med 2000;45:720-726.
150. Scalori A, Tavani A, Gallus S, La Vecchia C, Colombo M. Oral contraceptives and the risk of focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver: a case-control study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:195-197.
151. Schildkraut JM, Schwingl PJ, Bastos E, Evanoff A, Hughes C. Epithelial ovarian cancer risk among women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 1996;88:554-559.
152. Schildkraut JM, Calingaert B, Marchbanks PA, Moorman PG, Rodriguez GC. Impact of progestin and estrogen potency in oral contraceptives on ovarian cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002;94:32-38.
153. Schlesselman JJ. Net effect of oral contraceptive use on the risk of cancer in women in the United States. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:793-801.
154. Schlesselman JJ. Risk of endometrial cancer in relation to use of combined oral contraceptives. A practitioner's guide to meta-analysis. Hum Reprod 1997;12:1851-1863.
155. Shapiro S. Re: 'a case-control study of oral contraceptive use and incident breast cancer'. Am J Epidemiol 2009;170:802-803; author reply 803-4.
156. Shih Ie M, Kurman RJ. Ovarian tumorigenesis: a proposed model based on morphological and molecular genetic analysis. Am J Pathol 2004; 164:1511-1518.
157. Silvera SA, Miller AB, Rohan TE. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer among women with a family history of breast cancer: a prospective cohort study. Cancer Causes Control 2005;16:1059-1063.
158. Siskind V, Green A, Bain C, Purdie D. Beyond ovulation: oral contraceptives and epithelial ovarian cancer. Epidemiology 2000; 11:106-110.
159. Smith JS, Green J, Berrington de Gonzalez A, Appleby P, Peto J, Plummer M, Franceschi S, Beral V. Cervical cancer and use of hormonal contraceptives: a systematic review. Lancet 2003;361:1159-1167.
160. Soegaard M, Jensen A, Hogdall E, Christensen L, Hogdall C, Blaakaer J, Kjaer SK. Different risk factor profiles for mucinous and nonmucinous ovarian cancer: results from the Danish MALOVA study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007;16:1160-1166.
161. Spona J, Elstein M, Feichtinger W, Sullivan H, Ludicke F, Muller U, Dusterberg B. Shorter pill-free interval in combined oral contraceptives decreases follicular development. Contraception 1996;54:71-77.
162. Stanford JL, Brinton LA, Berman ML, Mortel R, Twiggs LB, Barrett RJ, Wilbanks GD, Hoover RN. Oral contraceptives and endometrial cancer: do other risk factors modify the association? Int J Cancer 1993; 54:243-248.
163. Syed V, Ho SM. Progesterone-induced apoptosis in immortalized normal and malignant human ovarian surface epithelial cells involves enhanced expression of FasL. Oncogene 2003;22:6883-6890.
164. Talamini R, Franceschi S, Dal Maso L, Negri E, Conti E, Filiberti R, Montella M, Nanni O, La Vecchia C. The influence of reproductive and hormonal factors on the risk of colon and rectal cancer in women. Eur J Cancer 1998;34:1070-1076.
165. Tao MH, Xu WH, Zheng W, Zhang ZF, Gao YT, Ruan ZX, Cheng JR, Gao J, Xiang YB, Shu XO. Oral contraceptive and IUD use and endometrial cancer: a population-based case-control study in Shanghai, China. Int J Cancer 2006;119:2142-2147.
166. Terry P, Baron JA, Weiderpass E, Yuen J, Lichtenstein P, Nyren O. Lifestyle and endometrial cancer risk: a cohort study from the Swedish Twin Registry. Int J Cancer 1999;82:38-42.
167. Trapido EJ. A prospective cohort study of oral contraceptives and cancer of the endometrium. Int J Epidemiol 1983;12:297-300.
168. Trivers KF, Gammon MD, Abrahamson PE, Lund MJ, Flagg EW, Moorman PG, Kaufman JS, Cai J, Porter PL, Brinton LA et al. Oral contraceptives and survival in breast cancer patients aged 20 to 54 years. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007;16:1822-1827.
169. Troisi R, Schairer C, Chow WH, Schatzkin A, Brinton LA, Fraumeni JF Jr. Reproductive factors, oral contraceptive use, and risk of colorectal cancer. Epidemiology 1997;8:75-79.
170. Tung KH, Goodman MT, Wu AH, McDuffie K, Wilkens LR, Kolonel LN, Nomura AM, Terada KY, Carney ME, Sobin LH. Reproductive factors and epithelial ovarian cancer risk by histologic type: a multiethnic case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 2003;158:629-638.
171. Tworoger SS, Fairfield KM, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Hankinson SE. Association of oral contraceptive use, other contraceptive methods, and infertility with ovarian cancer risk. Am J Epidemiol 2007;166:894-901.
172. van Wayenburg CA, van der Schouw YT, van Noord PA, Peeters PH. Age at menopause, body mass index, and the risk of colorectal cancer mortality in the Dutch Diagnostisch Onderzoek Mammacarcinoom (DOM) cohort. Epidemiology 2000;11:304-308.
173. Vessey M, Painter R. Oral contraceptive use and cancer. Findings in a large cohort study, 1968-2004. Br J Cancer 2006;95:385-389.
174. Vessey M, Yeates D. Oral contraceptives and benign breast disease: an update of findings in a large cohort study. Contraception 2007; 76:418-424.
175. Vessey M, Painter R, Yeates D. Mortality in relation to oral contraceptive use and cigarette smoking. Lancet 2003;362:185-191.
176. Weiderpass E, Adami HO, Baron JA, Magnusson C, Lindgren A, Persson I. Use of oral contraceptives and endometrial cancer risk (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 1999;10:277-284.
177. Weiss NS, Sayvetz TA. Incidence of endometrial cancer in relation to the use of oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 1980;302:551-554.
178. Weiss NS, Daling JR, Chow WH. Incidence of cancer of the large bowel in women in relation to reproductive and hormonal factors. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981;67:57-60.
179. Wheeler DT, Bristow RE, Kurman RJ. Histologic alterations in endometrial hyperplasia and well-differentiated carcinoma treated with progestins. Am J Surg Pathol 2007;31:988-998.
180. Whittemore AD. Autogenous saphenous vein versus PTFE bypass for above-knee femoropopliteal reconstruction. J Vasc Surg 1992;15:895-897.
181. Whittemore AS, Balise RR, Pharoah PD, Dicioccio RA, Oakley-Girvan I, Ramus SJ, Daly M, Usinowicz MB, Garlinghouse-Jones K, Ponder BA et al. Oral contraceptive use and ovarian cancer risk among carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. Br J Cancer 2004;91:1911-1915.
182. WHO. Endometrial cancer and combined oral contraceptives. The Who Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives. Int J Epidemiol 1988;17:263-269.
183. WHO. Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and risk of endometrial cancer. The WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives. Int J Cancer 1991;49:186-190.
184. Winer E, Gralow J, Diller L, Karlan B, Loehrer P, Pierce L, Demetri G, Ganz P, Kramer B, Kris M et al. Clinical cancer advances 2008: major research advances in cancer treatment, prevention, and screening-a report from the American Society of Clinical Oncology. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:812-826.
185. Wingo PA, Austin H, Marchbanks PA, Whiteman MK, Hsia J, Mandel MG, Peterson HB, Ory HW. Oral contraceptives and the risk of death from breast cancer. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110:793-800.
186. Wu-Williams AH, Lee M, Whittemore AS, Gallagher RP, Jiao DA, Zheng S, Zhou L, Wang XH, Chen K, Jung D et al. Reproductive factors and colorectal cancer risk among Chinese females. Cancer Res 1991;51:2307-2311.