High-dimensional coexistence based on individual variation: A synthesis of evidence

Ecological Monographs

Volumn 80, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 569-608

  Clark, James S ^a,b   Bell, David ^a   Chu, Chengjin ^a   Courbaud, Benoit ^a   Dietze, Michael ^a   Hersh, Michelle ^a   Hillerislambers, Janneke ^a   Ibáñez, Inés ^a   Ladeau, Shannon ^c   McMahon, Sean ^a   Metcalf, Jessica ^a   Mohan, Jacqueline ^a   Moran, Emily ^a   Pangle, Luke ^a   Pearson, Scott ^a   Salk, Carl ^a   Shen, Zehao ^a   Valle, Denis ^a   Wyckoff, Peter ^a  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Duke University   (United States)

^c CARY INSTITUTE OF ECOSYSTEM STUDIES   (United States)

Author keywords

Bayesian analysis; Biodiversity; Coexistence; Competition; Forest dynamics; Hierarchical models

Indexed keywords

BAYESIAN ANALYSIS; COEXISTENCE; DEMOGRAPHIC HISTORY; FECUNDITY; FOREST DYNAMICS; HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM; INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION; SPECIES DIVERSITY; SURVIVAL;

EID: 78649260529     PISSN: 00129615     EISSN: 15577015     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1890/09-1541.1     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Abrams, P. A. 1988. How should resources be counted? Theoretical Population Biology 33:226-242.
2. Amarasekare, P. 2007. Trade-offs, temporal variation, and species coexistence in communities with intraguild predation. Ecology 88:2720-2729.
3. Armstrong, R. A., and R. McGehee. 1980. Competitive exclusion. American Naturalist 115:151-170.
4. Assmann, E. 1970. The principles of forest yield study. Pergamon, Oxford, UK.
5. Baraloto, C., D. E. Goldberg, and D. Bonal. 2005. Performance trade-offs among tropical tree seedlings in contrasting microhabitats. Ecology 86:2461-2472.
6. Barker, D. J. P. 1998. Mothers, babies, and health in later life. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
7. Batista, W. B., W. J. Platt, and R. E. Macchiavelli. 1998. Demography of a shade-tolerant tree (Fagus grandifolia) in a hurricane-disturbed forest. Ecology 79:38-53.
8. Beckage, B., and J. S. Clark. 2005. Does predation contribute to tree diversity? Oecologia 143:458-469.
9. Berliner, L. M. 1996. Hierarchical Bayesian time series models. Pages 15-22 in K. M. Hanson and R. N. Silver, editors. Maximum entropy and Bayesian methods. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
10. Bonsall, M. B., V. A. A. Jansen, and M. P. Hassell. 2004. Life history trade-offs assemble ecological guilds. Science 306: 111-114.
11. Bradley, D. J., G. S. Gilbert, and J. B. H. Martiny. 2008. Pathogens promote plant diversity through a compensatory response. Ecology Letters 11:461-469.
12. Cadotte, M. W., D. V. Mai, S. Jantz, M. D. Collins, M. Keele, and J. A. Drake. 2006. On testing the competitioncolonization trade-off in a multispecies assemblage. American Naturalist 168:704-709.
13. Canham, C. D. 1988. Growth and canopy architecture of shade tolerant trees: response to canopy gaps. Ecology 69:786-795.
14. Canham, C. D. 1989. Different responses to gaps among shadetolerant trees species. Ecology 70:548-550.
15. Carey, J. R., P. Liedo, D. Orozco, and J. W. Vaupel. 1992. Slowing of mortality rates at older ages in large medfly cohorts. Science 258:457-461.
16. Chapin, F. S., III, L. R. Walker, C. L. Fastie, and L. C.Sharman. 1994. Mechanisms of primary succession following deglaciation at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Ecological Monographs 64:149-175.
17. Chase, J. M., P. A. Abrams, J. P. Grover, S. Diehl, P. Chesson, R. D. Holt, S. A. Richards, R. M. Nisbet, and T. J. Case. 2002. The interaction between predation and competition: a review and synthesis. Ecology Letters 5:302-315.
18. Chave, J., D. Coomes, S. Jansen, S. L. Lewis, N. G. Swensen, and A. E. Zanne. 2009. Towards a worldwide wood economics spectrum. Ecology Letters 12:351-366.
19. Chesson, P. 2000a. Mechanisms of maintenance of species diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31: 343-366.
20. Chesson, P. 2000b. General theory of competitive coexistence in spatially varying environments. Theoretical Population Biology 58:211-237.
21. Chesson, P., and J. J. Kuang. 2008. The interaction between predation and competition. Nature 456:235-238.
22. Christensen, N. L., and R. K. Peet. 1984. Convergence during secondary forest succession. Journal of Ecology 72:25-36.
23. Clark, D. A., and D. B. Clark. 1992. Life history diversity of canopy and emergent trees in a Neotropical rain forest. Ecological Monographs 62:315-343.
24. Clark, J. S. 1992. Density-independent mortality, density compensation, and gap formation in plant populations. Theoretical Population Biology 42:172-198.
25. Clark, J. S. 2005. Why environmental scientists are becoming Bayesians. Ecology Letters 8:2-14.
26. Clark, J. S. 2007. Models for ecological data. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
27. Clark, J. S. 2009. Beyond neutral science. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24:8-15.
28. Clark, J. S. 2010. Individuals and the variation needed for high species diversity. Science 327:1129-1132.
29. Clark, J. S., M. Dietze, P. Agarwal, S. Chakraborty, I. Ibanez, S. LaDeau, and M. Wolosin. 2007a. Resolving the biodiversity debate. Ecology Letters 10:647-662.
30. Clark, J. S., M. Dietze, I. Ibáñez, and J. Mohan. 2003. Coexistence: how to identify trophic trade-offs. Ecology 84: 17-31.
31. Clark, J. S., and A. E. Gelfand, editors. 2006. Hierarchical modelling for the environmental sciences. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
32. Clark, J. S., and M. H. Hersh. 2009. Inference when multiple pathogens affect multiple hosts: Bayesian model selection. Bayesian Analysis 4:1-30.
33. Clark, J. S., and S. L. LaDeau. 2006. Synthesizing ecological experiments and observational data with hierarchical Bayes. Pages 41-58 in J. S. Clark and A. Gelfand, editors. Hierarchical models of the environment. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
34. Clark, J. S., S. LaDeau, and I. Ibáñez. 2004. Fecundity of trees and the colonization-competition hypothesis. Ecological Monographs 74:415-442.
35. Clark, J. S., E. Macklin, and L. Wood. 1998. Stages and spatial scales of recruitment limitation in southern Appalachian forests. Ecological Monographs 68:213-235.
36. Clark, J. S., M. Silman, R. Kern, E. Macklin, and J. Hille Ris Lambers. 1999. Seed dispersal near and far: generalized patterns across temperate and tropical forests. Ecology 80: 1475-1494.
37. Clark, J. S., M. Wolosin, M. Dietze, I. Ibáñez, S. LaDeau, M. Welsh, and B. Kloeppel. 2007b. Tree growth inferences and prediction from diameter censuses and ring widths. Ecological Applications 17:1942-1953.
38. Cole, W. G., and C. G. Lorimer. 2005. Probabilities of smallgap capture by sugar maple saplings based on height and crown growth data from felled trees. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35:643-655.
39. Condit, R., et al. 2006. The importance of demographic niches to tree diversity. Science 313:98-101.
40. Connell, J. H. 1971. On the role of natural enemies in preventing competitive exclusion in some marine animals and in rain forest trees. Pages 298-312 in P. J. Boer and G. R. Graadwell, editors. Dynamics of numbers in populations. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
41. Connell, J. H., and R. O. Slatyer. 1977. Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization. American Naturalist 111: 1119-1144.
42. Craigmile, P. F., C. A. Calder, H. Li, R. Paul, and N. Cressie. 2009. Hierarchical model building, fitting, and checking: a behind-the-scenes look at a Bayesian analysis of arsenic exposure pathways. Bayesian Analysis 4:1-36.
43. Cressie, N., C. A. Calder, J. S. Clark, J. M. Ver Hoef, and C. K. Wikle. 2009. Accounting for uncertainty in ecological analysis: the strengths and limitations of hierarchical statistical modeling. Ecological Applications 19:553-570.
44. Dalling, J. W., and S. P. Hubbell. 2002. Seed size, growth rate and gap microsite conditions as determinants of recruitment success for pioneer species. Journal of Ecology 90:557-568.
45. Denslow, J. S. 1980. Gap partitioning among tropical rain forest trees. Biotropica 12(Supplement):47-55.
46. Denslow, J. S. 1987. Tropical rainforest gaps and tree species diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 18: 431-451.
47. Dietze, M., and J. S. Clark. 2008. Changing the gap dynamics paradigm: Vegetative regeneration control on forest response to disturbance. Ecological Monographs 78:331-347.
48. Doblhammer, G., and J. Oeppen. 2003. Reproduction and longevity among the British peerage: the effect of frailty and health selection. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 270: 1541-1547.
49. Dribe, M. 2004. Long-term effects of childbearing on mortality: evidence from pre-industrial Sweden. Population Studies 58: 297-310.
50. Dunne, J. A., R. J. Williams, and N. D. Martinez. 2002. Network structure and biodiversity loss in food webs: robustness increases with connectance. Ecology Letters 5: 558-567.
51. Dunson, D. B. 2009. Comment on article by Craigmile et al. Bayesian Analysis 4:41-44.
52. Ellner, S. 1987. Alternate plant life history strategies and coexistence in randomly fluctuating environments. Vegetatio 69:199-208.
53. Engelbrecht, B. M. J., L. S. Comita, R. Condit, T. A. Kursar, M. T. Tyree, B. L. Turner, and S. P. Hubbell. 2007. Drought sensitivity shapes species distribution patterns in tropical forests. Nature 447:80-82.
54. Feeley, K. J., and J. W. Terborgh. 2008. Trophic drivers of species loss from fragments. Animal Conservation 11:366-368.
55. Geber, M. A. 1990. The cost of meristem limitation in Polygonum arenastrum: negative genetic correlations between fecundity and growth. Evolution 44:799-819.
56. Gel, Y., A. E. Raftery, and T. Gneiting. 2004. Calibrated probabilistic mesoscale weather field forecasting. Journal of the American Statistical Association 99:575-583.
57. Gelfand, A. E., and S. K. Ghosh. 1998. Model choice: a minimum posterior predictive loss approach. Biometrika 85: 1-11.
58. Gelman, A., and J. Hill. 2007. Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
59. Geweke, J. F. 2004. Getting it right: joint distribution tests of posterior simulators. Journal of the American Statistical Association 99:799-804.
60. Gilbert, B., S. J. Wright, H. C. Muller-Landau, K. Kitajima, and A. Hernandez. 2006. Life history trade-offs in tropical trees and lianas. Ecology 87:1281-1288.
61. Gravel, D., C. D. Canham, M. Beaudet, and C. Messier. 2006. Reconciling niche and neutrality: the continuum hypothesis. Ecology Letters 9:399-409.
62. Grover, J. P. 1994. Assembly rules for communities of nutrientlimited plants and specialist herbivores. American Naturalist 143:258-282.
63. Grubb, P. J. 1977. The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities: the importance of the regeneration niche. Biological Reviews 52:107-145.
64. Gurevitch, J., and L. V. Hedges. 1999. Statistical issues in conducting ecological meta-analyses. Ecology 80:1142-1149.
65. Harms, K. E., S. J. Wright, O. Calderón, A. Hernández, and E. A. Herre. 2000. Pervasive density-dependent recruitment enhances seedling diversity in a tropical forest. Nature 404: 493-495.
66. Harper, J. L. 1977. Population biology of plants. Academic Press, London, UK.
67. Hastings, A. 1980. Disturbance, coexistence, history, and competition for space. Theoretical Population Biology 18: 363-373.
68. Hubbell, S. P. 2001. The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
69. Huisman, J., and F. J. Weissing. 1999. Biodiversity of plankton by species oscillations and chaos. Nature 402:407-410.
70. Hurt, L. S., C. Ronsmans, and S. L. Thomas. 2006. The effect of number of births on women's mortality: systematic review of the evidence for women who have completed their childbearing. Population Studies 60:55-71.
71. Hurtt, G. C., and S. W. Pacala. 1995. The consequences of recruitment limitation: reconciling chance, history and competitive differences between plants. Journal of Theoretical Biology 176:1-12.
72. Huston, M. A., and D. L. DeAngelis. 1994. Competition and coexistence: the effects of resource transport and supply rates. American Naturalist 144:954-977.
73. Huston, M. A., and T. M. Smith. 1987. Plant succession: life history and competition. American Naturalist 130:168-198.
74. Hutchinson, G. E. 1961. The paradox of the plankton. American Naturalist 95:137-145.
75. Ibáñez, I., J. S. Clark, and M. Dietze. 2008. Evaluating the sources of potential migrant species: implications under climate change. Ecological Applications 18:1664-1678.
76. Ibáñez, I., J. S. Clark, and M. Dietze. 2009. Estimating performance of potential migrant species. Global Change Biology 15:1173-1188.
77. Ibáñez, I., J. S. Clark, M. C. Dietze, K. Feeley, M. Hersh, S. LaDeau, A. McBride, N. E. Welch, and M. S. Wolosin. 2006. Predicting biodiversity change: outside the climate envelope, beyond the species-area curve. Ecology 87:1896-1906.
78. Ibáñez, I., J. S. Clark, S. LaDeau, and J. Hille Ris Lambers. 2007. Exploiting temporal variability to understand tree recruitment response to climate change. Ecological Monographs 77:163-177.
79. Inouye, R. S., and D. Tilman. 1988. Convergence and divergence of old-field plant communities along experimental nitrogen gradients. Ecology 69:995-1004.
80. Janzen, D. H. 1970. Herbivores and the number of tree species in tropical forests. American Naturalist 104:501-527.
81. Jobbágy, E. G., and R. B. Jackson. 2004. The uplift of soil nutrients by plants: biogeochemical consequences across scales. Ecology 85:2380-2389.
82. Kitajima, K. 1994. Relative importance of photosynthetic traits and allocation patterns as correlates of seedling shade tolerance of 13 tropical trees. Oecologia 98:419-428.
83. Kneitel, J. M., and J. M. Chase. 2004. Trade-offs in community ecology: linking spatial scales and species coexistence. Ecology Letters 7:69-80.
84. Kobe, R. K. 1996. Intraspecific variation in sapling mortality and growth predicts geographic variation in forest composition. Ecological Monographs 66:181-201.
85. Kohyama, T. 1993. Size-structured tree populations in gapdynamic forest: the forest architecture hypothesis for the stable coexistence of species. Journal of Ecology 81:131-143.
86. Kramer, G. H. 1983. The ecological fallacy revisited: aggregated- versus individual-level findings on economics and elections, and sociotropic voting. American Political Science Review 77:92-111.
87. 2 and the fecundity of forest trees. Science 292:95-98.
88. 2 and tree fecundity: the role of tree size, interannual variability, and population heterogeneity. Global Change Biology 12:822-833.
89. Latimer, A. M., S. Wu, A. E. Gelfand, and J. A. Silander, Jr. 2006. Building statistical models to analyze species distributions. Ecological Applications 16:33-50.
90. Levin, S. A. 1970. Community equilibria and stability, and an extension of the competitive exclusion principle. American Naturalist 104:413-423.
91. Levin, S. A. 1998. Ecosystems and the biosphere as complex adaptive systems. Ecosystems 1:431-436.
92. Levins, R. 1979. Coexistence in a variable environment. American Naturalist 114:765-783.
93. Lichstein, J. W., J. Dushoff, S. A. Levin, and S. W. Pacala. 2007. Intraspecific variation and species coexistence. American Naturalist 170:807-818.
94. Link, W. A., and R. J. Barker. 2006. Model weights and the foundations of multimodel inference. Ecology 87:2626-2635.
95. Loehle, C. 1987. Tree life history strategies: the role of defenses. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 18:209-222.
96. MacArthur, R. H. 1958. Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests. Ecology 39:599-619.
97. MacArthur, R. H., and R. Levins. 1964. Competition, habitat selection, and character displacement in a patchy environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 51:1207-1210.
98. MacArthur, R., and R. Levins. 1967. The limiting similarity, convergence, and divergence of coexisting species. American Naturalist 101:377-385.
99. Mair, W., P. Goymer, S. D. Pletcher, and L. Partridge. 2003. Demography of dietary restriction and death in Drosophila. Science 301:1731-1733.
100. Mangel, M., and J. Stamps. 2001. Trade-offs between growth and ortality and the maintenance of individual variation in growth. Evolutionary Ecology 3:583-593.
101. Marks, C. O., and M. J. Lechowicz. 2006. Alternative designs and the evolution of functional diversity. American Naturalist 167:55-67.
102. McCarthy, B. C., and J. A. Quinn. 1992. Fruit maturation patterns of Carya spp. (Juglandaceae): an intra-crown analysis of growth and reproduction. Oecologica 91:30-38.
103. Meszéna, G., M. Gyllenberg, L. Pá sztor, and J. A. J. Metz. 2006. Competitive exclusion and limiting similarity: a unified theory. Theoretical Population Biology 69:68-87.
104. Metcalf, C. J. E., J. S. Clark, and D. A. Clark. 2009a. Tree growth inference and prediction when the point of measurement changes: modelling around buttresses in tropical forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology 25:1-12.
105. Metcalf, C. J. E., J. S. Clark, and S. M. McMahon. 2009b. Overcoming data sparseness and parametric constraints in modeling of tree mortality: a new non-parametric Bayesian model. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 39:1677-1687.
106. Metcalf, C. J. E., M. Rees, J. M. Alexander, and K. E. Rose. 2006. Growth-survival trade-offs and allometries in rosetteforming perennials. Functional Ecology 20:217-225.
107. Mitton, J. B., and K. L. Duran. 2004. Genetic variation in piñon pine, Pinus edulis, associated with summer precipitation. Molecular Ecology 13:1259-1264.
108. 2 enrichment of an intact forest ecosystem: implications for temperate forest regeneration and succession. Ecological Applications 17:1198-1212.
109. Myers, J. A., and K. Kitajima. 2007. Carbohydrate storage enhances seedling shade and stress tolerance in a neotropical forest. Journal of Ecology 95:383-395.
110. Natarajan, R., and R. E. McCulloch. 1998. Gibbs sampling with diffuse proper priors: a valid approach to data-driven inference? Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics 7:267-277.
111. 2 in FACE. Oecologia 122:163-174.
112. Obeso, J. R. 2002. The costs of reproduction in plants. New Phytologist 155:321-348.
113. Ogle, K. 2009. Hierarchical Bayesian statistics: Merging experimental and modeling approaches in ecology. Ecological Applications 19:577-581.
114. O'Hagan, A., and M. West. 2010. Handbook of Bayesian analysis. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
115. Oren, R., J. S. Sperry, G. G. Katul, D. E. Pataki, B. E. Ewers, N. Phillips, and K. V. R. Schäfer. 1999. Survey and synthesis of intra- and interspecific variation in stomatal sensitivity to vapour pressure deficit. Plant, Cell and Environment 22: 1515-1526.
116. Pacala, S. W., C. D. Canham, J. Saponara, J. A. Silander, Jr., R. E. Kobe, and E. Ribbens. 1996. Forest models defined by field measurements. II. Estimation, error analysis, and dynamics. Ecological Monographs 66:1-43. (Pubitemid 126623239)
117. Pacala, S. W., and M. J. Crawley. 1992. Herbivores and plant diversity. American Naturalist 140:243-260.
118. Pacala, S. W., and D. Tilman. 1994. Limiting similarity in mechanistic and spatial models of plant competition in heterogeneous environments. American Naturalist 143:222-257.
119. Papiak, M. J., and C. D. Canham. 2006. Tree competition along environmental gradients in southern New Englandforests: an application of multi-model inference. Ecological Applications 16:1880-1892.
120. Pascual, M. 2005. Computational ecology: from the complex to the simple and back. PLoS Biology 1:e18.
121. Pastor, J., J. D. Aber, C. A. McClaugherty, and J. M. Melillo. 1984. Above-ground production and N and P cycling along a nitrogen mineralization gradient on Blackhawk Island, Wisconsin. Ecology 65:256-268.
122. Peters, J., and K. Mengersen. 2008. Selective reporting of adjusted estimates in observational epidemiology studies: reasons and implications for meta-analyses. Evaluation and the Health Professions 31:370-389.
123. Pickett, S. T. A. 1989. Space-for-time substitution as an alternative to long-term studies. Pages 110-135 in G. E. Likens, editor. Long-term studies in ecology: approaches and alternatives. Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, USA.
124. Platt, W. J., G. W. Evans, and S. L. Rathbun. 1988. The population dynamics of a long-lived conifer (Pinus palustris). American Naturalist 131:491-525.
125. Poulson, T. L., and W. J. Platt. 1989. Gap light regimes influence canopy tree diversity. Ecology 70:553-555.
126. Primack, R., and E. Stacy. 1998. Cost of reproduction in the pink lady's slipper orchid (Cypripedium acaule, Orchidaceae): an eleven-year experimental study of three populations. American Journal of Botany 85:1672-1679.
127. Rees, M., R. Condit, M. Crawley, S. Pacala, and D. Tilman. 2001. Long-term studies of vegetation dynamics. Science 293: 650-655.
128. Reich, P. B., M. B. Walters, and D. S. Ellsworth. 1997. From tropics to tundra: Global convergence in plant functioning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 94: 13730-13734.
129. Reznik, D. 1985. Costs of reproduction: an evaluation of the empirical evidence. Oikos 44:257-267.
130. Ricklefs, R. E., and C. D. Cadena. 2007. Lifespan is unrelated to investment in reproduction in populations of mammals and birds in captivity. Ecology Letters 10:867-872.
131. Royle, J. A., and R. M. Dorazio. 2008. Hierarchical modeling and inference in ecology: the analysis of data from populations, metapopulations and communities. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
132. Russo, S. E., P. Brown, S. Tan, and S. J. Davies. 2008. Interspecific demographic trade-offs and soil-related habitat associations of tree species along resource gradients. Journal of Ecology 96:192-203.
133. Scott, J. G., and J. O. Berger. In press. Bayes and empirical-Bayes multiplicity adjustment in the variable-selection problem. Annals of Statistics.
134. Sharp, W. M., and V. G. Sprague. 1967. Flowering and fruiting in the white oaks. Pistillate flowering, acorn development, weather, and yields. Ecology 48:243-251.
135. Silman, M. R. 2006. Plant species diversity in Amazonian forests. Pages 269-294 in M. Bush and J. Flenly, editors. Tropical rain forest responses to climate change. Praxis Publishing, Springer-Praxis, London, UK.
136. Silvertown, J. 2004. Plant coexistence and the niche. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19:605-611.
137. Silvertown, J., and M. Dodd. 1999. The demographic cost of reproduction and its consequences in balsam fir (Abies balsamea). American Naturalist 154:321-332.
138. Silvertown, J., M. Franco, I. Pisanty, and A. Mendoza. 1993. Comparative plant demography: relative importance of lifecycle components to the finite rate of increase in woody and herbaceous perennials. Journal of Ecology 81:465-476.
139. Sipe, T. W., and F. A. Bazzaz. 1995. Gap partitioning among maples (Acer) in central New England. Ecology 76:1587-1602.
140. Spiegelhalter, D. J., N. G. Best, B. P. Carlin, and A. van der Linde. 2002. Bayesian measures of model complexity and fit. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B 64:583-639.
141. Tatar, M., and J. R. Carey. 1995. Nutrition mediates reproductive trade-offs with age-specific mortality in the beetle Callosobruchus. Ecology 76:2066-2073.
142. Thomas, S. C. 1996. Relative size at the onset of maturity in rain forest trees: a comparative analysis of 37 Malaysian species. Oikos 76:145-154.
143. Tilman, D. 1982. Resource competition and community structure. Monographs in population biology 17. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
144. Tilman, D. 1985. The resource-ratio hypothesis of plant succession. American Naturalist 125:827-852.
145. Tilman, D. 1988. Dynamics and structure of plant communities. Monographs in population biology 26. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
146. Tilman, D. 1994. Competition and biodiversity in spatially structured habitats. Ecology 75:2-16.
147. Tilman, D. 2004. Niche tradeoffs, neutrality, and community structure: a stochastic theory of resource competition, invasion, and community assembly. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101:10854-10861.
148. Uriarte, M., C. D. Canham, J. Thompson, and J. K. Zimmerman. 2004. A neighborhood analysis of tree growth and survival in a hurricane-driven tropical forest. Ecological Monographs 74:591-614.
149. Valladares, F., and Ü. Niinemets. 2008. Shade tolerance, a keyplant feature of complex nature and consequences. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 39:237-257.
150. Vaupel, J. W., K. G. Manton, and E. Stallard. 1979. The impact of heterogeneity in individual frailty on the dynamics of mortality. Demography 16:439-454.
151. Ver Hoef, J. M., and K. Frost. 2003. A Bayesian hierarchical model for monitoring harbor seal changes in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Environmental and Ecological Statistics 10: 201-209.
152. Vieilledent, G., B. Courbaud, G. Kunstler, J.-F. Dhôte, and J. S. Clark. 2009. Biases in the estimation of size dependent mortality models: advantages of a semi-parametric approach. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 39:1430-1443.
153. Volkov, I., J. R. Banavar, S. P. Hubbell, and A. Marutan. 2003. Neutral theory and relative species abundance in ecology. Nature 424:1035-1037.
154. Walters, M. B., and P. B. Reich. 1996. Are shade tolerance, survival, and growth linked? Low light and, nitrogen effects on hardwood seedlings. Ecology 77:841-853.
155. Weiner, J., P. Stoll, H. Muller-Landau, and A. Jasentuliyana. 2001. The effects of density, spatial pattern and competitive symmetry on size variation in simulated plant populations.American Naturalist 158:438-450.
156. Welden, C. W., S. W. Hewett, S. P. Hubbell, and R. B. Foster. 1991. Sapling survival, growth, and recruitment: relationship to canopy height in a neotropical forest. Ecology 72:35-50.
157. Wikle, C. K. 2003. Hierarchical Bayesian models for predicting the spread of ecological processes. Ecology 84:1382-1394.
158. Wikle, C. K., and L. M. Berliner. 2005. Combining information across spatial scales. Technometrics 47:80-91.
159. Wright, I. J., et al. 2004. The worldwide leaf economics spectrum. Nature 428:821-827.
160. Wright, S. J. 2002. Plant diversity in tropical forests: a review of mechanisms of species coexistence. Oecologia 130:1-14.
161. Würth, M. K. R., S. Peláez-Riedl, S. J. Wright, and C. Körner. 2005. Non-structural carbohydrate pools in a tropical forest. Oecologia 143:11-24.
162. Wyckoff, P. H., and J. S. Clark. 2000. Predicting tree mortality from diameter growth: a comparison of maximum likelihood and Bayesian approaches. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 30:156-167.
163. Wyckoff, P. H., and J. S. Clark. 2002. Growth and mortality for seven co-occurring tree species in the southern Appalachian Mountains: implications for future forest composition. Journal of Ecology 90:604-615.
164. Wyckoff, P., and J. S. Clark. 2005. Comparing predictors of tree growth: the case for exposed canopy area. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35:13-20.
165. Yoda, K., K. Shinozaki, H. Ogawa, K. Hozumi, and T. Kira. 1965. Estimation of total amount of respiration from woody organs of trees and forest communities. Journal of Biology 16:15-26.
166. Zillio, T., and R. Condit. 2007. The impact of neutrality, niche differentiation and species input on diversity and abundance distributions. Oikos 116:931-940.