"Living versus Dead": The pasteurian paradigm and imperial vaccine research

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 84, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 387-423

  Chakrabarti, Pratik ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Carbolic acid; Kasauli; Live vaccine; Pasteur; Rage du laboratoire; Semple

Indexed keywords

RABIES VACCINE;

ARTICLE; BACTERIOLOGY; FRANCE; HISTORY; HUMAN; INDIA; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

BACTERIOLOGY; COLONIALISM; FRANCE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INDIA; RABIES VACCINES;

EID: 78449298543     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (229)

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2. Jonathan Simon, "Monitoring the Stable at the Pasteur Institute," Sci. Context 21 (2008): 181-200;
3. J. Andrew Mendelsohn, "The Microscopist of Modern Life," Osiris 18 (2003): 150-70.
4. Gerald L. Geison, The Private Science of Louis Pasteur (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995);
5. Nicholas Rupke, ed., Vivisection in Historical Perspective (London: Croom Helm, 1987);
6. Michael E. Lynch, "Sacrifice and the Transformation of the Animal Body into a Scientific Object: Laboratory Culture and Ritual Practice in the Neurosciences," Soc. Stud. Sci. 18 (1988): 265-89.
7. Bruno Latour, Pasteurisation of France (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 80-86.
8. For a brilliant critique of this aspect of Latour's work, see Simon Schaffer, "The Eighteenth Century Brumaire of Bruno Latour," Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci. 22 (1991): 174 -92.
9. "Pasteur's Method," Pioneer Mail and Indian Weekly News, August 12, 1896, 26-27.
10. Gerald L. Geison, "Pasteur, Roux, and Rabies: Scientific versus Clinical Mentalities," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci. 45 (1990): 341-65;
11. Kim Pelis, "Prophet for Profit in French North Africa: Charles Nicolle and the Pasteur Institute of Tunis, 1903-1936," Bull. Hist. Med. 51 (1997): 583-622, esp. 595-96;
12. Ilana Löwy, "From Guinea Pigs to Man: The Development of Haffkine's Anticholera Vaccine," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci. 47 (1992): 270-309;
13. George H. Bornside, "Waldemar Haffkine's Cholera Vaccines and the Ferran-Haffkine Priority Dispute," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci. 37 (1982): 399-422;
14. Derek S. Linton, "Was Typhoid Inoculation Safe and Effective during World War I? Debates within German Military Medicine," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci. 55 (2000): 101-33.
15. Keith L. Manchester, "Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)-Chance and the Prepared Mind," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): 511-15, quotation on 513.
16. Eliza Priestley, "The Realm of the Microbe," Nineteenth Cent. 29 (1891): 811-31, quotations on 811, 816, 817, and 831.
17. Quoted in Stephen Paget, Pasteur and After Pasteur (London: Black, 1914), 30.
18. Bornside, "Waldemar Haffkine's Cholera Vaccines" (n. 6), 408.
19. Anne-Marie Moulin, "Patriarchal Science: The Network of the Overseas Pasteur Institutes," in Science and Empires: Historical Studies about Scientific Development and European Expansion, ed. Patrick Petitjean, Catherine Jami, and Moulin (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer, 1992), 307-22, quotation on 309.
20. Bornside, "Waldemar Haffkine's Cholera Vaccines" (n. 6), 405.
21. Courtney Clark Manifold, "Report of a Case of Inoculation with Carbolized Anticholeraic Vaccine (Haffkine)," Indian Med. Gazette 18 (1893): 101-3.
22. Löwy, "From Guinea Pigs to Man" (n. 6), 298.
23. Bornside described Haffkine's cholera vaccination campaigns with live vaccines as "heroic." "Waldemar Haffkine's Cholera Vaccines" (n. 6), 409.
24. Löwy, "From Guinea Pigs to Man" (n. 6), 299;
25. Bornside, "Waldemar Haffkine's Cholera Vaccines" (n. 6), 403.
26. Löwy, "From Guinea Pigs to Man," (n. 6), 300.
27. Leonard Colebrook, "Almroth Edward Wright. 1861-1947," Obit. Notices Fell. Roy. Soc. 6 (1948): 297-314.
28. "Sir Almroth Wright," Brit. Med. J. 1 (May 1947): 646-47, 647.
29. According to Michael Worboys, this move to using dead vaccines established Wright's approach to immunity as that of a physiologist rather than a bacteriologist. Michael Worboys, "Almroth Wright at Netley: Modern Medicine and the Military in Britain, 1892-1902," in Medicine and Modern Warfare, ed. Roger Cooter, Mark Harrison, and Steve Sturdy (Amsterdam: Rodolpi, 1999), 77-97, esp. 88.
30. "Sir Almroth Wright" (n. 18), 647.
31. Linton, "Was Typhoid Inoculation Safe?" (n. 6), 101-33.
32. John R. Matthews, "Major Greenwood versus Almroth Wright: Contrasting Visions of 'Scientific' Medicine in Edwardian Britain," Bull. Hist. Med. 69 (1995): 30-43, esp. 35-36.
33. Wai Chen, "The Laboratory as Business: Sir Almroth Wright's Vaccine Programme and the Construction of Penicillin," in The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine, ed. Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 245-94, esp. 253.
34. A substance called opsonin which is present in the patient's serum.
35. This was popularized by Wright and Alexandre Besredka. See Matthews, "Major Greenwood" (n. 21);
36. Ilana Löwy, "'The Terrain Is All': Metchnikoff's Heritage at the Pasteur Institute, from Besredka's 'Antivirus' to Bardach's 'Orthobiotic Serum,'" in Greater Than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine 1920-1950, ed. Christopher Laurence and George Weisz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 257-82.
37. Matthews, "Major Greenwood" (n. 21), 35-36;
38. Chen, "Laboratory as Business" (n. 22), 264 -66.
39. David Semple, "A Preliminary Note on the Vaccine Therapy of Enteric Fever," Lancet 173 ( June 1909): 1668-75, esp. 1668-69. According to him, the principle of opsonic index helps "in setting in motion the machinery which elaborates the products of immunisation.
40. Ibid., 1669.
41. Michael Worboys, Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865-1900 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 81.
42. Christopher Lawrence, "Lister, Joseph, Baron Lister (1827-1912)," in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), http://www.oxforddnb. com/view/article/34553 (accessed April 2, 2008);
43. William Watson Cheyne, "Lister, the Investigator and Surgeon," Brit. Med. J. 1 (May 1925): 923-26, esp. 923.
44. William Kingston, "Antibiotics, Invention and Innovation," Res. Policy 29 (2000): 679-710, esp. 680.
45. Semple, "Preliminary Note" (n. 26), 1668-69.
46. David Semple, "On the Preparation and Use of Antirabic Serum, and on the Rabicidal Properties of Patients after Undergoing Antirabic Treatment;
47. Also a Note on the Blood of a Patient Suffering from Hydrophobia," Lancet 171 ( June 1908): 1611-18.
48. Ibid., 1613.
49. David Semple, The Preparation of a Safe and Efficient Antirabic Vaccine: Scientific Memoirs by the Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India (Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1911), 27.
50. Ibid., 28.
51. Ibid., 31.
52. Ibid., 29.
53. Ibid., 4. His recommended dosage was dilutions of 4 percent and 8 percent rabies virus in 1 percent carbolic acid.
54. Ibid., 1.
55. "Opportunities for Original Research in Medicine in India," J. Roy. Soc. Arts 65 (1917): 391-95, quotation on 392.
56. "A Safe and Efficient Antirabic Vaccine," Lancet 178 ( July 1911): 173.
57. William J. Webster, Rabies and Antirabic Treatment in India (Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1946), 6.
58. Morrison to director, Bombay Bacteriological Laboratory, May 8 1923, "Anti-rabic Treatment: Opening of Additional Centres," General Department, G.D. file no. 4761 (I), ff, 5-7, Maharashtra State Archive, Mumbai, India.
59. "India," Brit. Med. J. 2 (October 1925): 765-66.
60. Toby Gelfand, "11 January 1887, the Day Medicine Changed: Joseph Grancher's Defense of Pasteur's Treatment for Rabies," Bull. Hist. Med. 76 (2002): 698-718;
61. Geison, "Pasteur, Roux, and Rabies" (n. 6).
62. Bryan Benjamin, "A Pasteur Institute for India," 373-74, Home-Medical, August 1894, P/4554, Asia Pacific and Africa Collections, British Library, London (hereafter APAC).
63. Gelfand, "Day Medicine Changed" (n. 44), 710.
64. Semple, Preparation of a Safe and Efficient Antirabic Vaccine (n. 33), 2.
65. John W. Cornwall and W. A. Beer, "On the Occurrence of Paralysis after Treatment with Antirabic Vaccine," Indian J. Med. Res. 13 (1926): 467;
66. Cornwall, "Recent Advances of Knowledge in Connection with Rabies," Indian Med. Gazette 42 (1907): 121.
67. H. G. Dennehy to Under Sec of State, December 9, 1926, Economic and Overseas Department Papers, L/E/7/1465, 1, APAC.
68. J. Taylor, "Note on the International Rabies Conference Held in Paris April 1927," 3.
69. ibid.
70. Ibid., 4.
71. Ibid., 6.
72. A. C. Marie, Paul Remlinger, and H. Vallée, International Rabies Conference Held at the Pasteur Institute, Paris, from April 25th to 29th, 1927 (Geneva: League of Nations, 1927), 48.
73. Ibid., 97-98.
74. Remlinger's own work was mainly on the paralytic accidents from rabies.
75. see George M. Baer, ed., The Natural History of Rabies (New York: CRC Press, 1991), 15-16;
76. Remlinger, "Accidents paralytiques au cours du traitement antirabique," Ann. de 1'Inst. Pasteur 19 (1905): 625;
77. "Rage experimentale de la souris et du rat," C.R. Soc. Biol. 56 (1904): 42;
78. "La rage de laboratoire," Bull. Acad. Med. Paris 113 (1935): 836.
79. "Anti-rabies Vaccination and the Public Authorities," in Marie, Remlinger, and Vallée, International Rabies Conference (n. 53), 154 -57.
80. Marie, Remlinger, and Vallée, International Rabies Conference (n. 53), 7.
81. Ibid., 8.
82. Edward J. Turner to the Sec, Govt of India, July 15, 1927, 6, Economic and Overseas Department Papers, L/E/7/1465, APAC.
83. "Extract from Private a Letter from Col. Graham to Mr Donaldson," 22 September 1927.
84. ibid.
85. Graham to Donaldson, New Delhi, November 16, 1927, 2-3.
86. ibid.
87. Ibid., 5.
88. Quoted by Graham.
89. ibid., 3.
90. Ibid., 4 -5.
91. Arthur Hirtzel (Under Sec of State) to the Medical Adviser, January 17, 1928.
92. ibid.
93. Pratik Chakrabarti, "Beasts of Burden: Animals and Laboratory Research in Colonial India," Hist. Sci. 48 (2010): 125-51.
94. William F. Harvey and H. W. Acton, "An Examination into the Degree of Efficacy of Antirabic Treatment," Indian J. Med. Res. 9 (1923): 853;
95. R. Knowles, "Some Problems in Rabies," Indian Med. Gazette, 67 (1927): 389-91.
96. Morrison to Smith, January 10, 1928, Economic and Overseas Department Papers, L/E/7/1465, APAC.
97. "Extract from Official Report of the Assam Legislative Council Debates," April 9, 1928, 482.
98. ibid.
99. Annual Report of the Public Health Commissioner with the Government of India, 1925, vol. 1, 61-62, V/24/3659, APAC.
100. "Minutes of a Meeting of a Medical Committee held in the office of the Director- General, Indian Medical Service, on September 28 at 11 am, 'Inadvisability of Extending Anti-rabic Treatment by Present Carbolised Vaccine to District Areas in India until Results of Investigations Are Known,'" Department of Education Health and Land, Medical Branch, 1926, 95-96 B, 6, National Archive of India, New Delhi (hereafter NAI).
101. Ibid., 6-7.
102. McKendrick was a mathematician, epidemiologist, and army officer belonging to the IMS, director Pasteur Institute, Kasauli (1914 -20). He also served as the superintendent of the Research Laboratory, Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh (1920-41).
103. McKendrick to Cunningham, December 13, 1925, E. 15, Papers and correspondence of John Cunningham, 1880-1968, reference code: GB 0237 Gen. 2004, 15 boxes, Special Collections, Edinburgh University Library, Edinburgh (hereafter JC papers).
104. "Further Note on the Antirabic Treatment Position," L/E/7/1465, 1-6, APAC.
105. "Notes on Literature on Rabies," A. 14, JC papers.
106. Ether Experiments, I, Resistance to Ether 1926-1927, E. 3, Ether Experiments, III. Human Cases Treated with Ether Virus, 1926-7, Note 8, October 1926, "It has been decided to treat the worst human cases attending the Institute with ether vaccine." E. 5, JC papers.
107. Cunningham to Graham, copy to John K. S. Fleming, secretary, Pasteur Institute of India, January 22, 1926, E. 15.
108. ibid.
109. The colorless, light, volatile liquid (C4H10O) resulting from the action of sulfuric acid upon alcohol.
110. Lise Wilkinson, "The Development of the Virus Concept as Reflected in Corpora of Studies on Individual Pathogens. 4. Rabies-Two Millennia of Ideas and Conjecture on the Aetiology of a Virus Disease," Med. Hist. 21 (1977): 15-31, esp. 29.
111. Cunningham to Graham, January 22, 1926, E. 15, JC papers.
112. W. Keyworth to King, Mardan, March 3, 1926, E. 6
113. ibid.
114. Patient postcard to the director, Pasteur Institute, Kasauli, January 14, 1926
115. ibid.
116. Cunningham to Graham, March 2, 1926
117. ibid.
118. Cunningham to Graham, August 26, 1926, E. 15
119. ibid.
120. Graham, Office of DGIMS to Cunningham, September 14, 1926
121. ibid.
122. Cunningham to Acton, November 3, 1926
123. ibid.
124. Cunningham to Fleming, September 16, 1926
125. ibid.
126. Cunningham to the Secretary, Pasteur Institute of India, September 1, 1926, 1-8
127. ibid.
128. David Arnold, Science, Technology and Medicine in Colonial India (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 199.
129. Civil surgeon, Jodhpur to Cunningham, January 27, 1927, E. 6, JC papers.
130. Cunningham to Fleming, January 4, 1927, 1-4, E. 15
131. ibid.
132. Cunningham to McKendrick, February 9, 1927, 3-4, E. 15
133. ibid.
134. Cunningham also wrote to McKendrick that although Taylor, who was on leave in England, was to represent India, "[h]e does not know the ins and outs of the matter as far as Kasauli is concerned, however, and so you will have to stand up for our opinions there."
135. Ibid.
136. Ibid.
137. McKendrick to Cunningham, May 11, 1927, 5, E. 16
138. ibid.
139. Ibid.
140. Ibid., 2-3.
141. Ibid., 2-3.
142. Ibid., 4.
143. Ibid., 5.
144. Cunningham to McKendrick, July 1, 1927
145. ibid.
146. Ibid., 15.
147. Carl Prausnitz to Cunningham, August 19, 1927, E. 18
148. ibid.
149. Prausnitz to Cunningham, October 24, 1927
150. ibid.
151. Cunningham to Prausnitz, February 10, 1928, 1-2
152. ibid.
153. Cunningham to Graham, January 31, 1928, 1-4
154. ibid.
155. Report by Cunningham to the League of Nations, "Note on Para 2 Letter of July 14th 1928 from the Medical Director, League of Nations, to the Public Health Commissioner with the Govt of India, Dealing with Resolution No. 11.5 of the International Rabies Conference 1927," 3, E. 19
156. ibid.
157. Ibid., 4.
158. The Semple vaccine was standardized later, even in India, into a single dosage.
159. "Provisional Agenda for Rabies Conference to be Held at Calcutta on 21st December 1928," 3.
160. ibid.
161. W. H. C. Forster, "A Note on the Present Position of Anti-Rabic Treatment in India" 1.
162. ibid.
163. Ibid.
164. Ibid., 2.
165. Cunningham to Secretary, Scientific Advisory Board, Indian Research Fund Association, January 10, 1929, E. 20.
166. ibid.
167. Malone to Cunningham, August 29, 1929, E. 21.
168. ibid.
169. Cunningham to Graham September 19, 1929.
170. ibid.
171. "An Investigation into the Comparative Values of Carbolised and Etherised Vaccines in Antirabic Treatment," Malone's Interim Report, prepared December 13, 1929, 7-8, E. 21.
172. ibid.
173. Ibid., 18-19.
174. John Cunningham, M. J. Nicholas, and B. N. Lahiri, "The Action of Ether on Fixed Virus," Indian J. Med. Res. 14 (1926): 505-20, esp. 505.
175. Cunningham, Nicholas, and Lahiri, "The Action of Ether on 'Street Virus' in Infected Brains," Indian J. Med. Res. 15 (1927): 85-88, esp. 85.
176. Cunningham, Nicholas, and Lahiri, "The Action of Ether on Street Virus on Infected Cord," Indian J. Med. Res. 16 (1928): 245-51, esp. 245.
177. Malone to Cunningham, April 11, 1929, E. 9, JC papers.
178. Ibid.
179. "An Investigation into the Comparative Values," E. 21, 19.
180. ibid.
181. Malone to Cunningham, January 9, 1930, E. 21.
182. ibid.
183. Stuart and Krikorian worked in the Department of Health Laboratories in Palestine where they conducted experiments on both etherized and carbolized (both killed in their opinion) vaccines and concluded that the Semple vaccine reduced cases of paralysis.
184. G. Stuart and K. S. Krikorian, "Studies in Antirabies Immunisation," J. Hygiene 29 (1929): 1-34;
185. "Appearance and Persistence in Rabbits' Blood of Rabicidal Antibodies Produced by Various Methods of Anti-rabies Immunisation," J. Hygiene 31 (1931): 414 -22;
186. "The Rabicidal Antibody Content of Rabbit Immune Serum as an Index of Acquired Resistance to Rabies Infection," J. Hygiene 32 (1932): 489-93.
187. "Observations by the Directors of Pasteur Institutes of India on the Report by Cunningham and Malone Entitled 'An Investigation into the Comparative Values of Carbolised Vaccine and Etherised Vaccines of Alivisatos and Hempt in Anti-rabic Treatment' Carried Out at the Pasteur Institute, Kasauli," E. 21, JC papers.
188. "Summary of the Recommendations by Rabies Committee Convened in December 1929, during the Research Workers Conference at Calcutta, Together with a Copy of Resolution No. 7, Relating to Anti-rabic Treatment in India," Department of Education Health and Land, Health Branch, 1930, 341-44 B, 5, NAI.
189. Ibid., 5-6.
190. Webster, Rabies and Antirabic Treatment (n. 41), 6.
191. "An Investigation into the Value of an Etherised Vaccine in the Prophylactic Treatment of Rabies," MSS Drafts, tables relating to work on rabies, E. 22, JC papers.
192. "An Investigation into the Value of an Etherised Vaccine in the Prophylactic Treatment of Rabies," MSS Drafts, tables relating to work on rabies, table IV, E. 22.
193. ibid.
194. H. E. Shortt, R. H. Malone, and A. C. Craighead, "An Investigation into the Relative Immunizing Value of the Kasauli and Paris Strains of Rabies Fixed Virus," Indian Med. Res. Mem., Supplementary Series to the Indian J. Med. Res. 28 (1934): 1-78, quotation on 1.
195. Ibid., 2.
196. "Prophylactic Treatment of rabies," Brit. Med. J. 1 ( June 1933): 979-80.
197. Cunningham, draft of article, "Rabies," E. 25, JC papers.
198. R. Knowles, "Anti-rabic Policy in India," Indian Med. Gazette 65 (1930): 155-56, esp. 156.
199. Shortt, Malone, and Craighead, "Investigation into the Relative Immunizing Value" (n. 130), 7.
200. Very similar improvements were noticed by Maria J. Otten-van Stockum in Bandung in the Dutch East Indies with her formalized vaccines prepared from monkey brain in 1916. She used monkey brain as it was cheaper and provided more brain matter per animal than the rabbit.
201. Otten-van Stockum, "Rabies Research in the Netherlands Indies," reprinted from "Rabies Researches," in Meded. Van den Dienst der Volksgezondesd in Nederlandsch Indie 30 (1941): 269-79.
202. The Pasteur Institute of Southern India, Coonoor, Thirty Eighth Annual Report (Madras: Pasteur Institute of Southern India, 1940), 15.
203. "Progress of Antirabic Treatment," Brit. Med. J. 1 (May 1930): 923-24, quotation on 924.
204. S. D. S. Greval, "Against Orthodoxies in Rabies," Indian Med. Gazette 71 (1936): 69-73, 71.
205. Ibid., 73.
206. Ibid.
207. Pasteur Institute of Southern India (n. 136), 17.
208. Also see N. Veeraraghavan, "Phenolized Vaccine Treatment of People Exposed to Rabies in Southern India," Bull. WHO 10 (1954): 789-96.
209. Webster, Rabies and Antirabic Treatment (n. 41), 7.
210. Ibid.
211. Geison, "Pasteur, Roux, and Rabies" (n. 6), 358.
212. Gelfand, "Day Medicine Changed" (n. 44), 710.
213. "Antirabic Treatment Paralysis," Amer. J. Pub. Health 20 (1930): 412-13, esp. 412.
214. Ibid.
215. McKendrick, "A Ninth Analytical Review of Reports from Pasteur Institutes on the Results of Antirabies Treatment," Bull. WHO 9 (1940-41): 31.
216. Baer, Natural History of Rabies (n. 54), 576.
217. Charles F. Pait and Harold E. Pearson, "Rabies Vaccine Encephalomyelitis in Relation to the Incidence of Animal Rabies in Los Angeles," Amer. J. Pub. Health Nation's Health 39 (1949): 875-77, esp. 875.
218. "The Treatment of Rabies," Brit. Med. J. 2 (October 1950): 823-24, esp. 823.
219. F.-X. Meslin and M. M. Kaplan, "General Considerations in the Production and Use of the Brain Tissue and Purified Chicken-Embryo Rabies Vaccines for Human Use," in Laboratory Techniques in Rabies, ed. F.-X. Meslin, M. M. Kaplan, and H. Koprowski (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1996), 223-33, esp. 224.
220. Pait and Pearson, "Rabies Vaccine Encephalomyelitis" (n. 150), 877.
221. G. S. Turner, "Rabies Vaccines," Brit. Med. Bull. 25 (1969): 136-42, esp. 136.
222. Madureira Pará, "An Outbreak of Post-Vaccinal Rabies (Rage de Laboratoire) in Fortaleza, Brazil in 1960," Bull. WHO 33 (1965): 177-82.
223. WHO Expert Committee on Rabies: Sixth Report (WHO technical report series no. 523; Geneva, 1973), 17.
224. Karl F. Meyer, "Effectiveness of Live or Killed Plague Vaccines in Man," Bull. WHO 42 (1970): 653-66.
225. Strategies for the Control and Elimination of Rabies in Asia: Report of a WHO Interregional Consultation (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001), 3.
226. WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies (WHO technical report series no. 931; Geneva, 2005), first report, 13.
227. The suckling mouse brains were first tried in the 1960s for antirabic vaccine. E. Fuenzalida, R. Palacios, and J. M. Borgoňo, "Antirabies Antibody Response in Man to Vaccine Made from Infected Suckling-Mouse Brains," Bull. WHO 30 (1964): 431-36.
228. Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Essential Tension: Tradition and Innovation in Scientific Research," in The Philosophy of Science, ed. Richard Boyd, Philip Gasper, and J. D. Trout (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1991), 139-58.
229. Arthur E. Boycott, "The Transition from Live to Dead: The Nature of Filterable Viruses," Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 22 (1928): 55-69, quotation on 60.