An experimental field study of interpersonal discrimination toward muslim job applicants

Personnel Psychology

Volumn 63, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 881-906

  King, Eden B ^a   Ahmad, Afra S ^a  

^a GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 78149394549     PISSN: 00315826     EISSN: 17446570     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01199.x     Document Type: Article

References (46)

1. Allen C, Nielsen JS. (2002). Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001. Vienna, Austria: European Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia.
2. American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee. (2008). Report on hate crimes and discrimination against Arab Americans. Retrieved from
3. Biernat M, Vescio TK. (2002). She swings, she hits, she's great, she's benched: Implications of gender-based shifting standards for judgment and behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 66-77.
4. Brehm JW. (1999). The intensity of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 2-22.
5. Bushman BJ, Bonacci AM. (2004). You've got mail: Using email to examine the effect of prejudiced attitudes on discrimination against Arabs. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 753-759.
6. Cleveland JN, Vescio TK, Barnes-Farrell JL. (2005). Gender discrimination in organizations. In Dipboye RL, Colella A (Eds.), Discrimination at work: The psychological and organizational bases (pp. 149-176). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
7. Crandall CS. (1994). Prejudice against fat people: Ideology and self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 882-894.
8. Crandall CS, Eshleman A. (2003). A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 414-446.
9. Crandall CS, Eshleman A, O'Brien LO. (2002). Social norms and the expression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 359-378.
10. Crosby F, Bromley S, Saxe L. (1980). Recent unobtrusive studies of Black and White discrimination and prejudice: A literature review. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 546-563.
11. Cuddy A, Fiske S, Glick P. (2007). The BIAS map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 631-648.
12. Cuddy AJC, Fiske ST, Glick P. (2004). When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn't cut the ice. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 701-718.
13. Deitch B, Barsky A, Butz R, Brief AP, Bradley J, Chan S. (2003). Subtle yet significant: Investigating the existence and consequences of everyday racism in the workplace. Human Relations, 56, 1299-1327.
14. Dipboye RL, Colella A. (2005). The dilemmas of workplace discrimination. In Dipboye RL, Colella A (Eds.), Discrimination at work: The psychological and organizational bases (pp. 425-462). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
15. Dovidio JF, Gaertner SL. (1986). Prejudice, discrimination, and racism. New York: Academic Press.
16. Dovidio JF, Kawakami K, Johnson C, Johnson B, Howard A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 510-540.
17. Fiske ST, Cuddy A, Glick P, Xu J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 878-902.
18. Fiske ST, Neuberg SL. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation of attention and interpretation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 1-68.
19. Frijda NH. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
20. Ghumann S, Jackson L. (2008). Between a cross and a hard place: Religious identifiers and employability. Journal of Workplace Rights, 13, 259-279.
21. Ghumann S, Jackson L. (2010). The downside of religious attire. The Muslim headscarf and expectations of obtaining employment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 4-23. doi:
22. Greenwald AG, Banaji MR. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 4-27.
23. Greenwald AG, McGhee DE, Schwartz JLK. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
24. Hebl MR, Dovidio JF. (2005). Placing the "social" back in the examination of social stigma. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 156-182.
25. Hebl MR, Foster JB, Mannix LM, Dovidio JF. (2002). Formal and interpersonal discrimination: A field study of bias towards homosexual applicants. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 815-825.
26. Hebl MR, King EB, Glick P, Singletary S, Kazama ST. (2007). Hostile and benevolent reactions toward pregnant women: Complementary interpersonal punishments and rewards that maintain traditional roles. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1499-1511.
27. Jones RA, Cooper J. (1971). Mediation of experimenter effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 20, 70-74.
28. King E, Shapiro JL, Hebl M, Singletary S, Turner S. (2006). The stigma of obesity in customer service: A mechanism for remediation and bottom-line consequences of interpersonal discrimination. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 579-593.
29. Kleck RE, Nuessle W. (1968). Congruence between the indicative and communicative functions of eye contact in interpersonal relations. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7, 241-246.
30. Krueger J, Rothbart M. (1988). Use of categorical and individuating information in making inferences about personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 866-875.
31. Locksley A, Borgida E, Brekke N, Hepburn C. (1980). Sex stereotypes and social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 821-831.
32. Macrae CN, Bodenhausen GV, Milne AB, Jetten J. (1994). Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 808-817.
33. Martell RF, Lane DM, Emrich C. (1996). Male-female differences: A computer simulation. American Psychologist, 51, 157-158.
34. McConahay JB. (1983). Modern racism and modern discrimination: The effects of race, racial attitudes, and context on simulated hiring decisions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 551-558.
35. Minear M, Park DC. (2004). A lifespan database of adult facial stimuli. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 630-633.
36. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life (2009). Views of Muslim-Americans hold steady after London bombings. Retrieved from
37. Pew Research Center. (2007). Muslim Americans: Middle class and mostly mainstream. Retrieved from
38. Ruscher JB. (2001). Prejudiced communication: A social psychological perspective. New York: Guilford.
39. Saroglou V, Lamkaddem B, Van Pacheterbeke M, Buxant C. (2008). Host society's dislike of the Islamic veil: The role of subtle prejudice, values, and religion. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33, 419-428.
40. Shapiro J, King EB, Quiñones M. (2007). Expectations of obese trainees: How stigmatized trainee characteristics influence training effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 239-249.
41. Shelton JN, Richeson JA, Salvatore J. (2005). Expecting to be a target of prejudice: Implications for inter-ethnic interactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1198-1202.
42. th, 2001. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 317-336.
43. Singletary SL, Hebl MR. (2009). Compensatory strategies for reducing interpersonal discrimination: Effectiveness of acknowledgments, increased positivity, and individuating information. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 797-805.
44. Shapiro JR, Neuberg SL. (2008). When do the stigmatized stigmatize? The ironic effects of being accountable to (perceived) majority group prejudice-expression norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 877-898.
45. Word CO, Zanna MP, Cooper J. (1974). The nonverbal mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in interracial interaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 109-120.
46. Zogby International. (2007). Report card on American prejudice. Retrieved from