Exposing the thyroid to radiation: A review of its current extent, risks, and implications

Endocrine Reviews

Volumn 31, Issue 5, 2010, Pages 756-773

  Sinnott, Bridget ^a,b,d   Ron, Elaine ^c   Schneider, Arthur B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

^b MERCY HOSPITAL AND MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT DALLAS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANCER RISK; CANCER SCREENING; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; FLUOROSCOPY; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; IN UTERO STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; MEDICAL RESEARCH; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION DOSE; RADIATION EXPOSURE; RADIOSENSITIVITY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; THYROID CANCER; TOOTH RADIOGRAPHY; X RAY;

CARCINOMA, PAPILLARY; CHILD; FEMALE; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; MALE; NEOPLASMS, RADIATION-INDUCED; RADIATION DOSAGE; THYROID GLAND; THYROID NEOPLASMS;

EID: 77958175404     PISSN: 0163769X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1210/er.2010-0003     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. Ron E, Lubin JH, Shore RE, Mabuchi K, Modan B, Pottern LM, Schneider AB, Tucker MA, Boice Jr JD 1995 Thyroid cancer after exposure to external radiation: a pooled analysis of seven studies. Radiat Res 141:259-277
2. Sadetzki S 2007 Excess lifetime cancer mortality risk attributed to radiation exposure from pediatric computed tomography scan. Isr Med Assoc J 9:607-609 (Pubitemid 47323418)
3. Horner MJ, Ries LAG, Krapcho M, Neyman N, Aminou R, Howlader N, Altekruse SF, Feuer EJ, Huang L, Mariotto A, Miller BA, Lewis DR, Eisner MP, Stinchcomb DG, Edwards BK 2009 SEER cancer statistics review, 1975-2006. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute (http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975-2006, based on November 2008 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER web site, 2009)
4. Trimboli P, Ulisse S, Graziano FM, Marzullo A, Ruggieri M, Calvanese A, Piccirilli F, Cavaliere R, Fumarola A, D'Armiento M 2006 Trend in thyroid carcinoma size, age at diagnosis, and histology in a retrospective study of 500 cases diagnosed over 20 years. Thyroid 16:1151-1155 (Pubitemid 44864490)
5. Davies L, Welch HG 2006 Increasing incidence of thyroid cancer in the United States, 1973-2002. JAMA 295:2164-2167
6. Enewold L, Zhu K, Ron E, Marrogi AJ, Stojadinovic A, Peoples GE, Devesa SS 2009 Rising thyroid cancer incidence in the United States by demographic and tumor characteristics, 1980-2005. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18:784-791
7. Chen AY, Jemal A, Ward EM 2009 Increasing incidence of differentiated thyroid cancer in the United States, 1988-2005. Cancer 115:3801-3807
8. UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Radiation) 2000 Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. Vol 2. New York: United Nations
9. Hall EJ, Brenner DJ 2008 Cancer risks from diagnostic radiology. Br J Radiol 81:362-378
10. Chodick G, Kim KP, Shwarz M, Horev G, Shalev V, Ron E 2009 Radiation risks from pediatric computed tomography scanning. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev 7:109-116
11. International Commission on Radiological Protection 2007 Recommendations of the ICRP. Publication no. 103. Ann ICRP 37:1-332
12. 2009 Ionizing radiation exposure of the population of the United States. Report no. 160. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement
13. National Research Council 2006 Health risks from exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2. Washington, DC: National Academy Press
14. Mettler Jr FA, Thomadsen BR, Bhargavan M, Gilley DB, Gray JE, Lipoti JA, McCrohan J, Yoshizumi TT, Mahesh M 2008 Medical radiation exposure in the U.S. in 2006: preliminary results. Health Phys 95:502-507
15. Ron E, Modan B, Preston D, Alfandary E, Stovall M, Boice Jr JD 1989 Thyroid neoplasia following low-dose radiation in childhood. Radiat Res 120:516-531 (Pubitemid 20022197)
16. Sigurdson AJ, Ronckers CM, Mertens AC, Stovall M, Smith SA, Liu Y, Berkow RL, Hammond S, Neglia JP, Meadows AT, Sklar CA, Robison LL, Inskip PD 2005 Primary thyroid cancer after a first tumour in childhood (the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study): a nested case-control study. Lancet 365:2014-2023 (Pubitemid 40805009)
17. 2009 Risks to the thyroid from ionizing radiation. Report no. 159. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement
18. Huda W, Atherton JV, Ware DE, Cumming WA 1997 An approach for the estimation of effective radiation dose at CT in pediatric patients. Radiology 203:417-422 (Pubitemid 27176214)
19. Huda W 2002 Dose and image quality in CT. Pediatr Radiol 32:709-713; discussion 751-754
20. Richardson DB 2009 Exposure to ionizing radiation in adulthood and thyroid cancer incidence. Epidemiology 20:181-187
21. Ron E 2003 Cancer risks from medical radiation. Health Phys 85:47-59
22. Berrington de González A, Darby S 2004 Risk of cancer from diagnostic x-rays: estimates for the UK and 14 other countries. Lancet 363:345-351 (Pubitemid 38169539)
23. Bader D, Datz H, Bartal G, Juster AA, Marks K, Smolkin T, Zangen S, Kugelman A, Hoffmann C, Shani G, Ben-Shlomo A, Margaliot M, Sadetzki S 2007 Unintentional exposure of neonates to conventional radiography in the Neonatal Intensive Care Units. J Perinatol 27:579-585 (Pubitemid 47338034)
24. Sutton PM, Arthur RJ, Taylor C, Stringer MD 1998 Ionising radiation from diagnostic x rays in very low birth-weight babies. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 78:F227-F229 (Pubitemid 28240416)
25. Willis CE, Slovis TL 2005 The ALARA concept in pediatric CR and DR: dose reduction in pediatric radiographic exams - a white paper conference. AJR Am J Roentgenol 184:373-374 (Pubitemid 46657235)
26. Brenner DJ, Hall EJ 2007 Computed tomography - an increasing source of radiation exposure. N Engl J Med 357:2277-2284 (Pubitemid 350190758)
27. Petrik V, Apok V, Britton JA, Bell BA, Papadopoulos MC 2006 Godfrey Hounsfield and the dawn of computed tomography. Neurosurgery 58:780-787
28. Semelka RC, Armao DM, Elias Jr J, Huda W 2007 Imaging strategies to reduce the risk of radiation in CT studies, including selective substitution with MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging 25:900-909 (Pubitemid 46697559)
29. 2008 Radiation risks and pediatric computed tomography (CT): a guide for health care providers. National Cancer Institute, Society for Pediatric Radiology http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/causes/radiation-risks-pediatric-CT (accessed July 3, 2010)
30. Mettler Jr FA, Wiest PW, Locken JA, Kelsey CA 2000 CT scanning: patterns of use and dose. J Radiol Prot 20:353-359
31. Hart D, Wall BF 2004 UK population dose from medical x-ray examinations. Eur J Radiol 50:285-291 (Pubitemid 38625732)
32. Metting NF 2010 Ionizing radiation dose ranges. http://lowdose.energy. gov/imagegallery.aspx (accessed July 3, 2010)
33. Linton OW, Mettler Jr FA 2003 National conference on dose reduction in CT, with an emphasis on pediatric patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 181:321-329
34. Slovis TL, Berdon WE 2002 Perfect is the enemy of the very good. Pediatr Radiol 32:217-218
35. Sodickson A, Baeyens PF, Andriole KP, Prevedello LM, Nawfel RD, Hanson R, Khorasani R 2009 Recurrent CT, cumulative radiation exposure, and associated radiation-induced cancer risks from CT of adults. Radiology 251:175-184
36. Brenner DJ, Doll R, Goodhead DT, Hall EJ, Land CE, Little JB, Lubin JH, Preston DL, Preston RJ, Puskin JS, Ron E, Sachs RK, Samet JM, Setlow RB, Zaider M 2003 Cancer risks attributable to low doses of ionizing radiation: assessing what we really know. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:13761-13766 (Pubitemid 37499140)
37. Preston DL, Ron E, Tokuoka S, Funamoto S, Nishi N, Soda M, Mabuchi K, Kodama K 2007 Solid cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors: 1958-1998. Radiat Res 168:1-64
38. Brenner D, Elliston C, Hall E, Berdon W 2001 Estimated risks of radiation-induced fatal cancer from pediatric CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 176:289-296 (Pubitemid 32105628)
39. Chodick G, Ronckers CM, Shalev V, Ron E 2007 Excess lifetime cancer mortality risk attributable to radiation exposure from computed tomography examinations in children. Isr Med Assoc J 9:584-587 (Pubitemid 47323412)
40. Baker SR, Hsieh YH, Maldjian PD, Scanlan MT 2009 Inadvertent thyroid irradiation in protocol-driven trauma CT: a survey of hospital ERs. Emerg Radiol 16:203-207
41. Dang PA, Kalra MK, Sistrom CL, Boland GW, Dreyer KJ, Thrall JH 2008 Are multi-region CT scans too many, too often?A10-year audit in a large practice. Proc 94th Annual Meeting of the Radiological Society of North America, Chicago, Illinois, 2008 (Abstract)
42. Paterson A, Frush DP, Donnelly LF 2001 Helical CT of the body: are settings adjusted for pediatric patients? AJR Am J Roentgenol 176:297-301
43. Dawson P, Punwani S 2009 The thyroid dose burden in medical imaging: a re-examination. Eur J Radiol 69:74-79
44. Fujii K, Aoyama T, Koyama S, Kawaura C 2007 Comparative evaluation of organ and effective doses for paediatric patients with those for adults in chest and abdominal CT examinations. Br J Radiol 80:657-667 (Pubitemid 47517811)
45. Brisse HJ, Robilliard M, Savignoni A, Pierrat N, Gaboriaud G, De Rycke Y, Neuenschwander S, Aubert B, Rosenwald JC 2009 Assessment of organ absorbed doses and estimation of effective doses from pediatric anthropomorphic phantom measurements for multi-detector row CT with and without automatic exposure control. Health Phys 97:303-314
46. Donadieu J, Roudier C, Saguintaah M, Maccia C, Chiron R 2007 Estimation of the radiation dose from thoracic CT scans in a cystic fibrosis population. Chest 132:1233-1238 (Pubitemid 47620998)
47. Baker SR, Bhatti WA 2006 The thyroid cancer epidemic: is it the dark side of the CT revolution? Eur J Radiol 60:67-69
48. Mazonakis M, Tzedakis A, Damilakis J, Gourtsoyiannis N 2007 Thyroid dose from common head and neck CT examinations in children: is there an excess risk for thyroid cancer induction? Eur Radiol 17:1352-1357
49. Berrington de González A, Mahesh M, Kim KP, Bhargavan M, Lewis R, Mettler F, Land C 2009 Projected cancer risks from computed tomographic scans performed in the United States in 2007. Arch Intern Med 169:2071-2077
50. Silverman SG, Tuncali K, Adams DF, Nawfel RD, Zou KH, Judy PF 1999 CT fluoroscopy-guided abdominal interventions: techniques, results, and radiation exposure. Radiology 212:673-681 (Pubitemid 29410966)
51. terBrugge KG 1999 Neurointerventional procedures in the pediatric age group. Childs Nerv Syst 15:751-754
52. Gnanalingham KK, Apostolopoulos V, Barazi S, O'Neill K 2006 The impact of the international subarachnoid aneurysm trial (ISAT) on the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage in a neurosurgical unit in the UK. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 108:117-123 (Pubitemid 43075528)
53. López-Palop R, Moreu J, Fernández-Vázquez F, Hernández Antolín R 2004 Spanish registry of cardiac catheterization and coronary interventions. Thirteenth official report of the working group on cardiac catheterization and Interventional Cardiology of the Spanish Society of Cardiology (1990-2003). Rev Esp Cardiol 57:1076-1089
54. Martinez LC, Vano E, Gutierrez F, Rodriguez C, Gilarranz R, Manzanas MJ 2007 Patient doses from fluoroscopically guided cardiac procedures in pediatrics. Phys Med Biol 52:4749-4759 (Pubitemid 47232285)
55. Valentin J 2000 Avoidance of radiation injuries from medical interventional procedures. Ann ICRP 30:7-67
56. Perisinakis K, Theocharopoulos N, Damilakis J, Manios E, Vardas P, Gourtsoyiannis N 2005 Fluoroscopically guided implantation of modern cardiac resynchronization devices: radiation burden to the patient and associated risks. J Am Coll Cardiol 46:2335-2339 (Pubitemid 41785507)
57. Campbell RM, Strieper MJ, Frias PA, Jeager G, Balfour G, Costello L, Sullivan KM 2005 Quantifying and minimizing radiation exposure during pediatric cardiac catheterization. Pediatr Cardiol 26:29-33 (Pubitemid 41569557)
58. Wu JR, Huang TY, Wu DK, Hsu PC, Weng PS 1991 Radiation exposure of pediatric patients and physicians during cardiac catheterization and balloon pulmonary valvuloplasty. Am J Cardiol 68:221-225
59. Sulieman A, Theodorou K, Vlychou M, Topaltzikis T, Kanavou D, Fezoulidis I, Kappas C 2007 Radiation dose measurement and risk estimation for paediatric patients undergoing micturating cystourethrography. Br J Radiol 80:731-737 (Pubitemid 350033112)
60. Schneider K, Krüger-Stollfuss I, Ernst G, Kohn MM 2001 Paediatric fluoroscopy - a survey of children's hospitals in Europe. I. Staffing, frequency of fluoroscopic procedures and investigation technique. Pediatr Radiol 31:238-246
61. Shortt CP, Fanning NF, Malone L, Thornton J, Brennan P, Lee MJ 2007 Thyroid dose during neurointerventional procedures: does lead shielding reduce the dose? Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 30:922-927
62. Mettler Jr FA, Bhargavan M, Thomadsen BR, Gilley DB, Lipoti JA, Mahesh M, McCrohan J, Yoshizumi TT 2008 Nuclear medicine exposure in the United States, 2005-2007: preliminary results. Semin Nucl Med 38:384-391
63. Rosenberg RD, Mettler Jr FA, Moseley Jr RD, Parker T, Williams AG, Christie JH, Kelsey CA 1985 Thyroid radiation absorbed dose from diagnostic procedures in U.S. population. Radiology 156:183-185 (Pubitemid 15024486)
64. Becker DV, Charkes ND, Hurley JR, McDougall IR Price DC, Royal HD, Sarkar SD, Dworkin HJ 1999 Society of Nuclear Medicine procedure guidelines for thyroid scintigraphy. Version 2. http://interactive.snm.org/index.cfm?PageID=772 (accessed October 16, 2009)
65. Hahn K, Schnell-Inderst P, Grosche B, Holm LE 2001 Thyroid cancer after diagnostic administration of iodine-131 in childhood. Radiat Res 156:61-70 (Pubitemid 32641623)
66. Dickman PW, Holm LE, Lundell G, Boice Jr JD, Hall P 2003 Thyroid cancer risk after thyroid examination with I-131: a population-based cohort study in Sweden. Int J Cancer 106:580-587
67. Schneider AB, Sarne DH 2005 Long-term risks for thyroid cancer and other neoplasms after exposure to radiation. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 1:82-91
68. Bollen AM, Cunha-Cruz J, Hujoel PP 2007 Secular trends in preadult orthodontic care in the United States: 1942-2002. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 132:579-585
69. Hujoel P, Hollender L, Bollen AM, Young JD, McGee M, Grosso A 2008 Head-and-neck organ doses from an episode of orthodontic care. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 133:210-217
70. Svenson B, Sjöholm B, Jonsson B 2004 Reduction of absorbed doses to the thyroid gland in orthodontic treatment planning by reducing the area of irradiation. Swed Dent J 28:137-147
71. Ohman A, Kull L, Andersson J, Flygare L 2008 Radiation doses in examination of lower third molars with computed tomography and conventional radiography. Dentomaxillofac Radiol 37:445-452
72. Ekestubbe A, Thilander-Klang A, Lith A, Gröndahl HG 2004 Effective and organ doses from scanography and zonography: a comparison with periapical radiography. Dentomaxillofac Radiol 33:87-92
73. 2001 An update on radiographic practices: information and recommendations. ADA Council on Scientific Affairs. J Am Dent Assoc 132:234-238
74. Geist JR, Katz JO 2002 Radiation dose-reduction techniques in North American dental schools. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 93:496-505
75. Jemal A, Murray T, Ward E, Samuels A, Tiwari RC, Ghafoor A, Feuer EJ, Thun MJ 2005 Cancer statistics, 2005. CA Cancer J Clin 55:10-30
76. Soberman N, Leonidas JC, Cherrick I, Schiff R, Karayalcin G 1991 Sonographic abnormalities of the thyroid gland in longterm survivors of Hodgkin disease. Pediatr Radiol 21:250-253
77. Tucker MA, Jones PH, Boice Jr JD, Robison LL, Stone BJ, Stovall M, Jenkin RD, Lubin JH, Baum ES, Siegel SE 1991 Therapeutic radiation at a young age is linked to secondary thyroid cancer. The Late Effects Study Group. Cancer Res 51:2885-2888
78. Green DM, Hyland A, Barcos MP, Reynolds JA, Lee RJ, Hall BC, Zevon MA 2000 Second malignant neoplasms after treatment for Hodgkin's disease in childhood or adolescence. J Clin Oncol 18:1492-1499
79. Inskip PD 2001 Thyroid cancer after radiotherapy for childhood cancer. Med Pediatr Oncol 36:568-573
80. Somerville HM, Steinbeck KS, Stevens G, Delbridge LW, Lam AH, Stevens MM 2002 Thyroid neoplasia following irradiation in adolescent and young adult survivors of childhood cancer. Med J Australia 176:584-587
81. Bhatia S, Yasui Y, Robison LL, Birch JM, Bogue MK, Diller L, DeLaat C, Fossati-Bellani F, Morgan E, Oberlin O, Reaman G, Ruymann FB, Tersak J, Meadows AT 2003 High risk of subsequent neoplasms continues with extended follow-up of childhood Hodgkin's disease: report from the Late Effects Study Group. J Clin Oncol 21:4386-4394
82. Mohanti BK, Bansal M 2005 Late sequelae of radiotherapy in adults. Support Care Cancer 13:775-780
83. Abedin S, Gupta V, Choudhury PS, Kapoor G, Dewan AK 2007 Thyroid carcinoma as second malignant neoplasm after Hodgkin's lymphoma. Indian J Med Paed Oncol 28:39-41
84. Black P, Straaten A, Gutjahr P 1998 Secondary thyroid carcinoma after treatment for childhood cancer. Med Pediat Oncol 31:91-95
85. Stewart RR, David CL, Eftekhari F, Ried HL, Fuller LM, Fornage BD 1989 Thyroid gland: US in patients with Hodgkin disease treated with radiation therapy in childhood. Radiology 172:159-163
86. Shore RE 1992 Issues and epidemiological evidence regarding radiation-induced thyroid cancer. Radiat Res 131:98-111
87. Acun H, Kemikler G, Karadeniz A 2007 Dosimetric analysis of thyroid doses from total cranial irradiation. Radiat Prot Dosimetry 123:498-504
88. Evans DG, Birch JM, Ramsden RT, Sharif S, Baser ME 2006 Malignant transformation and new primary tumours after therapeutic radiation for benign disease: substantial risks in certain tumour prone syndromes. J Med Genet 43:289-294
89. Sarne DH, Schneider A 2008 Radiation-induced thyroid tumors. In: Hay ID, Wass JAH, eds. Clinical endocrine oncology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing; 166-171
90. Ding SH, Pledge SD, Harrison BJ, Peck RJ, Bull MJ, Holland P, Weetman A, Hancock BW 2002 The incidence of thyroid abnormalities in adults irradiated for lymphoma. Int J Oncol 20:1065-1069
91. Jha AK, Prasiko R, Mod H, Chaurasia PP, Srivastava R 2008 Radiotherapy for benign diseases. JNMA J Nepal Med Assoc 47:151-155
92. Ogawa R, Yoshitatsu S, Yoshida K, Miyashita T 2009 Is radiation therapy for keloids acceptable? The risk of radiation-induced carcinogenesis. Plast Reconstr Surg 124:1196-1201
93. Holm LE, Hall P, Wiklund K, Lundell G, Berg G, Bjelkengren G, Cederquist E, Ericsson UB, Hallquist A, Larsson LG 1991 Cancer risk after iodine-131 therapy for hyperthyroidism. J Natl Cancer Inst 83:1072-1077
94. Hall P, Berg G, Bjelkengren G, Boice Jr JD, Ericsson UB, Hallquist A, Lidberg M, Lundell G, Tennvall J, Wiklund K 1992 Cancer mortality after iodine-131 therapy for hyperthyroidism. Int J Cancer 50:886-890
95. Franklyn JA, Maisonneuve P, Sheppard MC, Betteridge J, Boyle P 1998 Mortality after the treatment of hyperthyroidism with radioactive iodine. N Engl J Med 338:712-718
96. Ron E, Doody MM, Becker DV, Brill AB, Curtis RE, Goldman MB, Harris 3rd BS, Hoffman DA, McConahey WM, Maxon HR, Preston-Martin S, Warshauer ME, Wong FL, Boice Jr JD 1998 Cancer mortality following treatment for adult hyperthyroidism. JAMA 280:347-355 (Pubitemid 28503219)
97. Franklyn JA, Maisonneuve P, Sheppard M, Betteridge J, Boyle P 1999 Cancer incidence and mortality after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism: a population-based cohort study. Lancet 353:2111-2115 (Pubitemid 29278480)
98. Metso S, Auvinen A, Huhtala H, Salmi J, Oksala H, Jaatinen P 2007 Increased cancer incidence after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism. Cancer 109:1972-1979 (Pubitemid 46744190)
99. Metso S, Jaatinen P, Huhtala H, Auvinen A, Oksala H, Salmi J 2007 Increased cardiovascular and cancer mortality after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:2190-2196 (Pubitemid 46997120)
100. Stewart A, Webb J, Hewwitt D 1958 A survey of childhood malignancies. Br Med J 1:1495-1508
101. Preston DL, Cullings H, Suyama A, Funamoto S, Nishi N, Soda M, Mabuchi K, Kodama K, Kasagi F, Shore RE 2008 Solid cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors exposed in utero or as young children. J Natl Cancer Inst 100:428-436 (Pubitemid 351480515)
102. Hatch M, Brenner A, Bogdanova T, Derevyanko A, Kuptsova N, Likhtarev I, Bouville A, Tereshchenko V, Kovgan L, Shpak V, Ostroumova E, Greenebaum E, Zablotska L, Ron E, Tronko M 2009 A screening study of thyroid cancer and other thyroid diseases among individuals exposed in utero to iodine-131 from Chernobyl fallout. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:899-906
103. Stabin MG, Watson EE, Marcus CS, Salk RD 1991 Radiation dosimetry for the adult female and fetus from iodine-131 administration in hyperthyroidism. J Nucl Med 32:808-813
104. Berg GE, Nyström EH, Jacobsson L, Lindberg S, Lindstedt RG, Mattsson S, Niklasson CA, Norén AH, Westphal OG 1998 Radioiodine treatment of hyperthyroidism in a pregnant woman. J Nucl Med 39:357-361
105. Lloyd RD, Tripp DA, Kerber RA 1996 Limits of fetal thyroid risk from radioiodine exposure. Health Phys 70:559-562
106. Hurwitz LM, Yoshizumi T, Reiman RE, Goodman PC, Paulson EK, Frush DP, Toncheva G, Nguyen G, Barnes L 2006 Radiation dose to the fetus from body MDCT during early gestation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 186:871-876 (Pubitemid 46100280)
107. 2001 Evaluation of the linear-nonthreshold dose-response model for ionizing radiation. Report no. 136. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement
108. UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Radiation) 2008 UNSCEAR 2006 Report: effects of ionizing radiation. Vol 1. New York: United Nations
109. Pierce DA, Preston DL 2000 Radiation-related cancer risks at low doses among atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Res 154:178-186 (Pubitemid 30612918)
110. Preston DL, Shimizu Y, Pierce DA, Suyama A, Mabuchi K 2003 Studies of mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 13: Solid cancer and noncancer disease mortality: 1950-1997. Radiat Res 160:381-407
111. Cardis E, Vrijheid M, Blettner M, Gilbert E, Hakama M, Hill C, Howe G, Kaldor J, Muirhead CR, Schubauer-Berigan M, Yoshimura T, Bermann F, Cowper G, Fix J, Hacker C, Heinmiller B, Marshall M, Thierry-Chef I, Utterback D, Ahn YO, Amoros E, Ashmore P, Auvinen A, Bae JM, Solano JB, Biau A, Combalot E, Deboodt P, Diez Sacristan A, Eklof M, Engels H, Engholm G, Gulis G, Habib R, Holan K, Hyvonen H, Kerekes A, Kurtinaitis J, Malker H, Martuzzi M, Mastauskas A, Monnet A, Moser M, Pearce MS, Richardson DB, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Rogel A, Tardy H, Telle-Lamberton M, Turai I, Usel M, Veress K 2005 Risk of cancer after low doses of ionising radiation: retrospective cohort study in 15 countries. BMJ 331:77
112. Cardis E, Vrijheid M, Blettner M, Gilbert E, Hakama M, Hill C, Howe G, Kaldor J, Muirhead CR, Schubauer-Berigan M, Yoshimura T, Bermann F, Cowper G, Fix J, Hacker C, Heinmiller B, Marshall M, Thierry-Chef I, Utterback D, Ahn YO, Amoros E, Ashmore P, Auvinen A, Bae JM, Bernar J, Biau A, Combalot E, Deboodt P, Diez Sacristan A, Eklöf M, Engels H, Engholm G, Gulis G, Habib RR, Holan K, Hyvonen H, Kerekes A, Kurtinaitis J, Malker H, Martuzzi M, Mastauskas A, Monnet A, Moser M, Pearce MS, Richardson DB, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Rogel A, Tardy H, Telle-Lamberton M, Turai I, Usel M, Veress K 2007 The 15-Country Collaborative Study of Cancer Risk among Radiation Workers in the Nuclear Industry: estimates of radiation-related cancer risks. Radiat Res 167:396-416 (Pubitemid 351292972)
113. Sadetzki S, Chetrit A, Lubina A, Stovall M, Novikov I 2006 Risk of thyroid cancer after childhood exposure to ionizing radiation for tinea capitis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:4798-4804 (Pubitemid 44917310)
114. Schneider AB, Recant W, Pinsky SM, Ryo UY, Bekerman C, Shore-Freedman E 1986 Radiation-induced thyroid carcinoma: clinical course and results of therapy in 296 patients. Ann Intern Med 105:405-412 (Pubitemid 16014312)
115. Sarne D, Schneider AB 1996 External radiation and thyroid neoplasia. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 25:181-195
116. Naing S, Collins BJ, Schneider AB 2009 Clinical behavior of radiation-induced thyroid cancer: factors related to recurrence. Thyroid 19:479-485
117. Seaberg RM, Eski S, Freeman JL 2009 Influence of previous radiation exposure on pathologic features and clinical outcome in patients with thyroid cancer. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 135:355-359
118. Pacini F, Vorontsova T, Demidchik EP, Molinaro E, Agate L, Romei C, Shavrova E, Cherstvoy ED, Ivashkevitch Y, Kuchinskaya E, Schlumberger M, Ronga G, Filesi M, Pinchera A 1997 Post-Chernobyl thyroid carcinoma in Belarus children and adolescents: comparison with naturally occurring thyroid carcinoma in Italy and France. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:3563-3569 (Pubitemid 27509337)
119. Crom DB, Kaste SC, Tubergen DG, Greenwald CA, Sharp GB, Hudson MM 1997 Ultrasonography for thyroid screening after head and neck irradiation in childhood cancer survivors. Med Pediatr Oncol 28:15-21
120. Eden K, Mahon S, Helfand M 2001 Screening high-risk populations for thyroid cancer. Med Pediatr Oncol 36:583-591 (Pubitemid 32336566)
121. DeGroot LJ 1989 Diagnostic approach and management of patients exposed to irradiation to the thyroid. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 69:925-928
122. Mihailescu DV, Collins BJ, Wilbur A, Malkin J, Schneider AB 2005 Ultrasound-detected thyroid nodules in radiation-exposed patients: changes over time. Thyroid 15:127-133 (Pubitemid 40344360)
123. Landier W 2008 Long-term follow-up guidelines for survivors of childhood, adolescent and young adult cancers. Version 3.0. Arcadia, CA: Children's Oncology Group
124. Cooper DS, Doherty GM, Haugen BR, Kloos RT, Lee SL, Mandel SJ, Mazzaferri EL, McIver B, Sherman SI, Tuttle RM 2006 Management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 16:109-142
125. Hatipoglu BA, Gierlowski T, Shore-Freedman E, Recant W, Schneider AB 2000 Fine-needle aspiration of thyroid nodules in radiation-exposed patients. Thyroid 10:63-69 (Pubitemid 30090367)
126. Bozhok Y, Greenebaum E, Bogdanova TI, McConnell RJ, Zelinskaya A, Brenner AV, Zurnadzhy LY, Zablotska L, Tronko MD, Hatch M 2009 NA cohort study of thyroid cancer and other thyroid diseases after the Chernobyl accident: cytohistopathologic correlation and accuracy of fine-needle aspiration biopsy in nodules detected during the first screening in Ukraine (1998-2000). Cancer Cytopathol 117:73-81
127. Kikuchi S, Perrier ND, Ituarte PH, Treseler PA, Siperstein AE, Duh QY, Greenspan FS, Clark OH 2003 Accuracy of fine-needle aspiration cytology in patients with radiation-induced thyroid neoplasms. Brit J Surg 90:755-758 (Pubitemid 36760608)
128. 2007 Radiological protection in medicine. International Commission on Radiological Protection Publication 105. Ann ICRP 37:1-63
129. Feigel Jr DW 2002 FDA public health notification: reducing radiation risk from computed tomography for pediatric and small adult patients. Pediatr Radiol 32:314-316
130. Slovis TL 2002 Introduction to seminar in radiation dose reduction. Pediatr Radiol 32:707-708; discussion 751-754
131. Catalano C, Francone M, Ascarelli A, Mangia M, Iacucci I, Passariello R 2007 Optimizing radiation dose and image quality. Eur Radiol 17(Suppl 6):F26-F32 (Pubitemid 351337905)
132. McCollough CH, Primak AN, Braun N, Kofler J, Yu L, Christner J 2009 Strategies for reducing radiation dose in CT. Radiol Clin North Am 47:27-40
133. Cody DD, Moxley DM, Krugh KT, O'Daniel JC, Wagner LK, Eftekhari F 2004 Strategies for formulating appropriate MDCT techniques when imaging the chest, abdomen, and pelvis in pediatric patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 182:849-859 (Pubitemid 38391642)
134. McLean D, Malitz N, Lewis S 2003 Survey of effective dose levels from typical paediatric CT protocols. Australas Radiol 47:135-142 (Pubitemid 36783108)
135. Greess H, Lutze J, Nömayr A, Wolf H, Hothorn T, Kalender WA, Bautz W 2004 Dose reduction in subsecond multislice spiral CT examination of children by online tube current modulation. Eur Radiol 14:995-999 (Pubitemid 38787243)
136. Kase KR, Svensson GK, Wolbarst AB, Marks MA 1983 Measurements of dose from secondary radiation outside a treatment field. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 9:1177-1183 (Pubitemid 13041754)
137. Goske MJ, Applegate KE, Boylan J, Butler PF, Callahan MJ, Coley BD, Farley S, Frush DP, Hernanz-Schulman M, Jaramillo D, Johnson ND, Kaste SC, Morrison G, Strauss KJ, Tuggle N 2008 The Image Gently campaign: working together to change practice. AJR Am J Roentgenol 190:273-274 (Pubitemid 351196594)
138. Lee CI, Haims AH, Monico EP, Brink JA, Forman HP 2004 Diagnostic CT scans: assessment of patient, physician, and radiologist awareness of radiation dose and possible risks. Radiology 231:393-398
139. Oikarinen H, Meriläinen S, Pääkkö E, Karttunen A, Nieminen MT, Tervonen O 2009 Unjustified CT examinations in young patients. Eur Radiol 19:1161-1165
140. Finestone A, Schlesinger T, Amir H, Richter E, Milgrom C 2003 Do physicians correctly estimate radiation risks from medical imaging? Arch Environ Health 58:59-61
141. Shiralkar S, Rennie A, Snow M, Galland RB, Lewis MH, Gower-Thomas K 2003 Doctors' knowledge of radiation exposure: questionnaire study. BMJ 327:371-372 (Pubitemid 37000070)
142. Rice HE, Frush DP, Harker MJ, Farmer D, Waldhausen JH 2007 Peer assessment of pediatric surgeons for potential risks of radiation exposure from computed tomography scans. J Pediatr Surg 42:1157-1164 (Pubitemid 47018306)
143. 2000 The ionising radiation (medical exposure) regulations. Statutory Instrument 2000, no. 1059. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office
144. 1997 Health protection of individuals against the dangers of ionizing radiation in relation to medical exposure. EU Directive 1997/43/Euratom. Official journal no. L180: 0022-0027. Brussels, Belgium
145. Amis Jr ES, Butler PF, Applegate KE, Birnbaum SB, Brateman LF, Hevezi JM, Mettler FA, Morin RL, Pentecost MJ, Smith GG, Strauss KJ, Zeman RK 2007 American College of Radiology white paper on radiation dose in medicine. J Am Coll Radiol 4:272-284
146. Hall EJ, Metting N, Puskin J, Ron E 2009 Low dose radiation epidemiology: what can it tell us? Radiat Res 172:134-138
147. 1996 Instruction concerning risks from occupational radiation exposure. Regulatory Guide 8.29. Washington, DC: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
148. Mizuno T, Iwamoto KS, Kyoizumi S, Nagamura H, Shinohara T, Koyama K, Seyama T, Hamatani K 2000 Preferential induction of RET/PTC1 rearrangement by x-ray irradiation. Oncogene 19:438-443 (Pubitemid 30077345)
149. Volpato CB, Martínez-Alfaro M, Corvi R, Gabus C, Sauvaigo S, Ferrari P, Bonora E, De Grandi A, Romeo G 2008 Enhanced sensitivity of the RET proto-oncogene to ionizing radiation in vitro. Cancer Res 68:8986-8992
150. Nikiforova MN, Stringer JR, Blough R, Medvedovic M, Fagin JA, Nikiforov YE 2000 Proximity of chromosomal loci that participate in radiation-induced rearrangements in human cells. Science 290:138-141
151. Hamatani K, Eguchi H, Ito R, Mukai M, Takahashi K, Taga M, Imai K, Cologne J, Soda M, Arihiro K, Fujihara M, Abe K, Hayashi T, Nakashima M, Sekine I, Yasui W, Hayashi Y, Nakachi K 2008 RET/PTC rearrangements preferentially occurred in papillary thyroid cancer among atomic bomb survivors exposed to high radiation dose. Cancer Res 68:7176-7182
152. Tuttle RM, Lukes Y, Onstad L, Lushnikov E, Abrosimov A, Troshin V, Tsyb A, Davis S, Kopecky KJ, Francis G 2008 ret/PTC activation is not associated with individual radiation dose estimates in a pilot study of neoplastic thyroid nodules arising in Russian children and adults exposed to Chernobyl fallout. Thyroid 18:839-846
153. Bongarzone I, Butti MG, Fugazzola L, Pacini F, Pinchera A, Vorontsova TV, Demidchik EP, Pierotti MA 1997 Comparison of the breakpoint regions of ELE1 and RET genes involved in the generation of RET/PTC3 oncogene in sporadic and in radiation-associated papillary thyroid carcinomas. Genomics 42:252-259 (Pubitemid 27263755)
154. Nikiforov YE, Koshoffer A, Nikiforova M, Stringer J, Fagin JA 1999
155. Klugbauer S, Pfeiffer P, Gassenhuber H, Beimfohr C, Rabes HM 2001 RET rearrangements in radiation-induced papillary thyroid carcinomas: high prevalence of topoisomerase I sites at breakpoints and microhomologymediated end joining in ELE1 and RET chimeric genes. Genomics 73:149-160 (Pubitemid 32411352)
156. Detours V, Wattel S, Venet D, Hutsebaut N, Bogdanova T, Tronko MD, Dumont JE, Franc B, Thomas G, Maenhaut C 2005 Absence of a specific radiation signature in post-Chernobyl thyroid cancers. Br J Cancer 92:1545-1552 (Pubitemid 40705024)
157. Detours V, Delys L, Libert F, Weiss Solís D, Bogdanova T, Dumont JE, Franc B, Thomas G, Maenhaut C 2007 Genome-wide gene expression profiling suggests distinct radiation susceptibilities in sporadic and post-Chernobyl papillary thyroid cancers. Br J Cancer 97:818-825 (Pubitemid 47396287)
158. Detours V, Versteyhe S, Dumont JE, Maenhaut C 2008 Gene expression profiles of post-Chernobyl thyroid cancers. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 15:440-445
159. Port M, Boltze C, Wang Y, Röper B, Meineke V, Abend M 2007 A radiation-induced gene signature distinguishes post-Chernobyl from sporadic papillary thyroid cancers. Radiat Res 168:639-649 (Pubitemid 351295100)
160. Williams ED, Abrosimov A, Bogdanova T, Demidchik EP, Ito M, LiVolsi V, Lushnikov E, Rosai J, Tronko MD, Tsyb AF, Vowler SL, Thomas GA 2008 Morphologic characteristics of Chernobyl-related childhood papillary thyroid carcinomas are independent of radiation exposure but vary with iodine intake. Thyroid 18:847-852
161. Allan JM 2008 Genetic susceptibility to radiogenic cancer in humans. Health Phys 95:677-686
162. Mihailescu D, Shore-Freedman E, Mukani S, Lubin J, Ron E, Schneider AB 2002 Multiple neoplasms in an irradiated cohort: pattern of occurrence and relationship to thyroid cancer outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:3236-3241 (Pubitemid 34816371)
163. Adjadj E, Schlumberger M, de Vathaire F 2009 Germ-line DNA polymorphisms and susceptibility to differentiated thyroid cancer. Lancet Oncol 10:181-190
164. Ho T, Li G, Lu J, Zhao C, Wei Q, Sturgis EM 2009 Association of XRCC1 polymorphisms and risk of differentiated thyroid carcinoma: a case-control analysis. Thyroid 19:129-135
165. Sigurdson AJ, Land CE, Bhatti P, Pineda M, Brenner A, Carr Z, Gusev BI, Zhumadilov Z, Simon SL, Bouville A, Rutter JL, Ron E, Struewing JP 2009 Thyroid nodules, polymorphic variants in DNA repair and RET-related genes, and interaction with ionizing radiation exposure from nuclear tests in Kazakhstan. Radiat Res 171:77-88
166. Schneider AB, Ron E 2003 Radiation and thyroid cancer: lessons from a half century of study. In: Braverman LE, ed. Contemporary endocrinology: diseases of the thyroid. 2nd ed. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, Inc.; 239-262
167. 1997 Uncertainties in fatal cancer risk estimates used in radiation protection. Report no. 126. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement