Unmarried parents in college

Future of Children

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 179-203

  Goldrick Rab, Sara ^a   Sorensen, Kia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACHIEVEMENT; ADULT; ARTICLE; CHILD; CHILD CARE; CHILD REARING; CHILD WELFARE; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; FEMALE; HEALTH SERVICE; HUMAN; MALE; SINGLE PARENT; SOCIAL WELFARE; SOCIOECONOMICS; STATISTICS; STUDENT; UNITED STATES;

ACHIEVEMENT; ADULT; CHILD; CHILD CARE; CHILD REARING; CHILD WELFARE; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; FEMALE; HEALTH SERVICES NEEDS AND DEMAND; HUMANS; MALE; SINGLE-PARENT FAMILY; SOCIAL WELFARE; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; STUDENTS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 77957359682     PISSN: 10548289     EISSN: 15501558     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/foc.2010.0008     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Philip Oreopoulos and Kjell Salvanes, ''How Large Are Returns to Schooling? Hint: Money Isn't Everything,'' NBER Working Paper 15339 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009);
2. Lisa Barrow and Cecilia Rouse, ''Does College Still Pay?'' Economists' Voice 2, no. 4 (2005): 1-8;
3. Barbara Wolfe and Robert Haveman, ''Social and Nonmarket Benefits from Education in an Advanced Economy,'' in Education in the 21st Century: Meeting the Challenges of a Changing World, edited by Yolanda Kodrzycki (Boston: Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, 2003);
4. Philip A. Trostel and Todd M. Gabe, ''Fiscal and Economic Effects of College Attainment,'' Staff Paper 566 (University of Maine School of Economics, 2007) (www.umaine.edu/soe/files/2009/06/soe_566trostel.pdf [Aug. 5, 2009]);
5. Paul Attewell and David E. Lavin, Passing the Torch: Does Higher Education for the Disadvantaged Pay Off across the Generations? (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2007);
6. Janet Currie and Enrico Moretti, ''Biology as Destiny? Short- and Long-Run Determinants of Intergenerational Transmission of Birth Weight,'' Journal of Labor Economics 25, no. 2 (2007): 231-263;
7. Pedro Manuel Carneiro and others, ''Maternal Education, Home Environments and the Development of Children and Adolescents,'' Discussion Paper 3072 (Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor, 2007).
8. Jennie E. Brand and Yu Xie, ''Who Benefits Most from College? Evidence for Negative Selection in Heterogeneous Economic Returns to Higher Education,'' American Sociological Review (forthcoming).
9. Unless otherwise noted, all statistics in this paper are based on the authors' calculations using the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (Washington: National Center for Educational Statistics, 2009-10) (http://nces.ed.gov/datalab/quickstats/ [Aug. 5, 2009]).
10. It is also the case that students who claim financial responsibility for persons who are not children may be inaccurately labeled as parents. However, this is likely a less-common occurrence than the undercounting of parents who do not claim financial responsibility for their children.
11. Steven J. Ingels and others, ''Trends among High School Seniors, 1972-2004. NCES 2008-320'' (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 2008), p. 126 (http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008320.pdf [Aug. 10, 2009]).
12. Sara Goldrick-Rab and Josipa Roksa, ''A Federal Agenda for Promoting Student Success and Degree Completion'' (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2008) (www.americanprogress.org/issues/2008/08/degree_completion.html [Aug. 15, 2009]).
13. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), National Postsecondary Student Aid Study: 1986-97 (NPSAS:87), 1989-90 (NPSAS:90), 1992-93 (NPSAS:93), 2008 (NPSAS:08), Data Analysis Systems (http://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/97578f.asp).
14. As of 2007-08, undergraduates who were unmarried parents were disproportionately nonwhite (45 percent white, 30 percent African American, and 17 percent Latino).
15. Christina Chang Wei and others, ''A Decade of Undergraduate Student Aid: 1989-90 to 1999-2000. NCES 2004-158'' (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics) (http://nces.ed.gov/DAS/epubs/2004158/overview.asp [Aug. 3, 2009]).
16. These are national statistics, and the gender breakdown is very similar to that calculated using the Community College Survey of Student Engagement, which finds that 78 percent of unmarried parents in college are women (calculations by the Institute for Women's Policy Research; (Washington: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 2010).
17. Claudia Buchmann and others, ''Gender Inequalities in Education,'' Annual Review of Sociology 34 (2008).
18. Nan M. Astone and others, ''School Reentry in Early Adulthood: The Case of Inner City African Americans,'' Sociology of Education 13 (2000): 133-154;
19. Frank F. Furstenberg Jr. and others, ''Adolescent Mothers in Later Life,'' Family Planning Perspectives 19, no. 4 (1987): 142-151;
20. Cheryl Elman and Angela O'Rand, ''The Race Is to the Swift: Socioeconomic Origins, Adult Education, and Wage Attainment,'' American Journal of Sociology 110, no. 1 (2004): 123-160.
21. On postsecondary education among high school dropouts, see Jacob A. Klerman and Lynn A. Karoly, ''Young Men and the Transition to Stable Employment,'' Monthly Labor Review Aug. (1994): 31-48.
22. Carol Ann MacGregor, ''Education Delayed: Family Structure and Postnatal Educational Attainment,'' Working Paper 09-07-FF (Princeton: Center for Research on Child Wellbeing, July 2009);
23. Ellen M. Bradburn and others, ''Women's Return to School Following the Transition to Motherhood,'' Social Forces 73, no. 4 (1995): 1517.
24. Susan P. Choy and Mark D. Premo, ''Statistical Analysis Report: Profile of Older Undergraduates: 1989-90'' (NCES 95-167, Washington, 1995) (http://nces.ed.gov/pubs95/95167.pdf [Aug. 10, 2009]).
25. Astone and others, ''School Reentry in Early Adulthood'' (see note 11);
26. MacGregor, ''Education Delayed'' (see note 12).
27. Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, 2000-2001, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. B&B uses the same definition of unmarried parents as the NPSAS. (http://nces.ed.gov/dasolv2/tables/mainPage.asp?mode=NEW&filenumber=20 [Aug. 5, 2009]).
28. Calculations using the 1995-1996 Beginning Postsecondary Study, Quick Stats, (Washington: National Center for Educational Statistics) (http://nces.ed.gov/datalab/quickstats/ [Aug. 5, 2009]).
29. Attewell and Lavin, Passing the Torch (see note 1).
30. Audrey Light and Wayne Strayer, ''Who Receives the College Wage Premium? Assessing the Labor Market Returns to Degrees and College Transfer Patterns,'' Journal of Human Resources 39 (2004): 746-773;
31. Elman and O'Rand ''The Race Is to the Swift'' (see note 11);
32. Astone and others, ''School Reentry in Early Adulthood'' (see note 11).
33. Center for Women Policy Studies, ''Profile of Low-Income Women Students in Postsecondary Educational Institutions'' (Washington: Center for Women Policy Studies, 2010) (www.centerwomenpolicy.org/pdfs/PSEFactSheet.pdf [Feb. 10, 2010]).
34. The sample comes from the Michigan Study of Adult Life Transitions (MSALT) and consists of individuals residing in white middle and working-class suburbs in the Detroit metropolitan area, where only 5 percent of the population are minorities (p. 322). Data collection began in 1984 when subjects were in sixth grade and the ninth wave of data was collected in 1999. The sample size is just over 1,400.
35. Jerry A. Jacobs and Rosalind B. King, ''Age and College Completion: A Life-History Analysis of Women Aged 15-44,'' Sociology of Education 75, no. 3 (2002): 11-30.
36. Attewell and Lavin, Passing the Torch (see note 1).
37. Richard J. Murnane and others, ''Does a G.E.D. Lead to More Training, Postsecondary Education, and Military Service for School Dropouts?'' Industrial and Labor Relations Review 51, no. 1 (1997): 100-116. G.E.D. holders have a higher probability of college enrollment than high school dropouts, but less than half obtain any college education by age 26.
38. Calculations from 1995-1996 BPS data, using Quick Stats (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 2009) (http://nces.ed.gov/datalab/quickstats/ [Aug. 5, 2009]).
39. From U.S. Department of Education, 1992-93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS: 93), 2008 (NPSAS:08) (Washington: National Center for Educational Statistics, 2009) (http://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/96237.asp#ugwithdepentdentsp [Aug. 5, 2009]).
40. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003-04 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS: 04) (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 2009) (http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/2008/analysis/sa_table.asp?tableID=1006 [Aug. 5, 2009]).
41. MacGregor, ''Education Delayed'' (see note 12), p. 15.
42. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2008 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS: 08) (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 2009) (http://nces.ed.gov/datalab/quickstats/selections.aspx [Feb. 28, 2010]).
43. Before 2009, a single parent with one child was able to protect $10,520 in income. Because of recent reforms, beginning in 2009 that same family could protect $17,720 of its income. By 2012-13, it will be able to protect $22,630 in income. Subsequent increases for all groups will be pegged to increases in the Consumer Price Index.
44. For more, see ''Apply to Succeed: Ensuring Community College Students Benefit from Need-Based Financial Aid'' (Washington: Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance, 2008) (www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/acsfa/applytosucceed.pdf [Aug. 15, 2009]);
45. Amy Ellen Duke and Julie Strawn, ''Congress Expands Access to Postsecondary Education and Training for Low-Income Adults'' (Washington: Center for Law and Social Policy, 2007);
46. Sandy Baum, ''Lowering Work and Loan Burden: The Current Status of Student Reliance on Grants, Loans, and Work,'' in Reflections on College Access and Persistence (Washington: Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance 2006), 62-75.
47. Wei and others, ''A Decade of Undergraduate Student Aid'' (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics) (http://nces.ed.gov/DAS/epubs/2004158/overview.asp [Aug. 3, 2009]). The data in the second half of the sentence are older than those used in the first half, but similar computations could not be performed with the more recent data.
48. Kevin Miller and others, ''Improving Child Care Access to Promote Postsecondary Success among Low-Income Single Parents'' (Washington: Institute for Women's Policy Research, 2010).
49. Comparison of student budgets minus all aid, and comparison of cumulative debt, using NPSAS 2008.
50. Clifford Adelman, ''The Toolbox Revisited: Paths to Degree Completion from High School through 2006'' (Washington: Department of Education, 2006) (www2.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/toolboxrevisit/toolbox.pdf [Aug. 9, 2009]).
51. Sara McLanahan, ''Diverging Destinies: How Children Are Faring under the Second Demographic Transition,'' Demography 41, no. 4 (2004): 607-627.
52. It is possible that postsecondary education generates ''spillover'' effects on nonparticipants, for example by shaping family members' ambitions for college. Here we think of these as indirect effects.
53. For more on nonpecuniary returns, see Oreopoulos and Salvanes, ''How Large Are Returns to Schooling?'' (see note 1).
54. This possibility is also acknowledged by Oreopoulos and Salvanes, ''How Large Are Returns to Schooling?'' (see note 1).
55. Joshua R. Goldstein and Catherine T. Kenney, ''Marriage Delayed or Marriage Forgone? New Cohort Forecasts of First Marriage for U.S. Women,'' American Sociological Review 66 (2001): 506-519.
56. Steven P. Martin, ''Growing Evidence of a Divorce Divide? Education and Marital Rates in the U.S. since the 1970s,'' Working Paper (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004) (www.russellsage.org/publications/workingpapers/divorcedivide/document [Aug. 10, 2009]).
57. Jennie Brand and Dwight Davis, ''The Impact of College Education on Fertility: Evidence for Heterogeneous Effects,'' Demography (forthcoming).
58. MacGregor, ''Education Delayed'' (see note 12), p. 20.
59. MacGregor, ''Education Delayed'' (see note 12), p. 20.
60. Richard Arum and others, ''The Romance of College Attendance: Higher Education Stratification and Mate Selection,'' Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 26, no. 2 (2008): 107-121.
61. Melinda Mechur Karp and others, ''An Exploration of Tinto's Integration Framework for Community College Students,'' Working Paper (New York: Community College Research Center, 2008) (http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/Publication.asp?UID=615 [Jan. 2, 2010]).
62. Sharon Bzostek and others, ''Mothers' Repartnering after a Nonmarital Birth,'' Working Paper 06-27-FF (Princeton: Center for Research on Child Wellbeing, May 2010) (http://crcw.princeton.edu/publications/publications.asp [Feb. 28, 2010]).
63. Pierre-Andre Chiappori and others, ''Investment in Schooling and the Marriage Market,'' American Economic Review (forthcoming);
64. Kristen Harknett, ''Mate Availability and Unmarried Parent Relationships,'' Demography 45, no. 3 (2008): 555-571;
65. Robert D. Mare, ''Five Decades of Educational Assortative Mating,'' American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 15-32.
66. Robert D. Mare, ''Educational Assortative Mating and the Family Background of the Next Generation,'' Sociological Theory and Methods 21, no. 2 (2006): 253-77.
67. Christine R. Schwartz and Robert D. Mare, ''Trends in Educational Assortative Marriage,'' Demography 42, no. 4 (2005): 621-646;
68. Michael J. Cuyjet, African American Men in College (Indianapolis: Jossey-Bass, 2006).
69. Harknett, ''Mate Availability''(see note 48).
70. J. Bonke and G. Esping-Andersen, ''Parental Investments in Children: How Educational Homogamy and Bargaining Affect Time Allocation,'' Working Paper (Copenhagen: Rockwool Foundation Research Unit, 2007) (www.atususers.umd.edu/wip2/papers_i2007/Bonke_Andersen.pdf [April 21, 2010]).
71. A. Beck and C. Gonzalez-Sancho, ''Educational Assortative Mating and Children's School Readiness,'' Working Paper 09-05-FF (Princeton: Center for Research in Child Wellbeing, March 2009).
72. Oreopoulos and Salvanes, ''How Large Are Returns to Schooling?'' (see note 1);
73. Attewell and Lavin, Passing the Torch (see note 1);
74. Anne Martin and others,''The Joint Influence of Mother and Father Parenting on Child Cognitive Outcomes at Age 5,'' Early Childhood Research Quarterly 22, no. 4 (2007): 423-439.
75. Annette Lareau, Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life (University of California Press, 2003).
76. Kristin B. Wilson, ''Institutional Influences Affecting the College-Going Decisions of Low Income Mothers Attending a Rural Midwestern Community College'' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 2008), p. 91.
77. Jillian M. Duquaine-Watson, ''Pretty Darned Cold': Single Mother Students and the Community College Climate in Post-Welfare Reform America,'' Equity & Excellence in Education 40, no. 3 (2007): 229-240.
78. L. C. Sayer and others, ''Educational Differences in Parents' Time with Children: Cross-National Variations,'' Journal of Marriage and Family 66, no. 5 (2004).
79. Kathleen Shaw and others, Putting Poor People to Work (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006);
80. Wei and others, ''A Decade of Undergraduate Student Aid'' (see note 9).
81. For example, single parents faced additional challenges when welfare regulations decreased that form of support for single parents in college -the proportion of single parents receiving welfare while enrolled in college full time declined from 34 percent in 1995-96 to 9 percent in 1999-2000.
82. Kevin Miller and others, ''Improving Child Care Access to Promote Postsecondary Success among Low-Income Single Parents'' (Washington: Institute for Women's Policy Research, forthcoming).
83. Brian Pusser and others, ''Returning to Learning: Adults' Success in College Is Key to America's Future'' (Indianapolis: Lumina Foundation for Education, 2007);
84. Steven Brint and Allison Cantwell, ''Student Time Use and Academic Outcomes'' (unpublished paper, Department of Sociology, University of California-Riverside, 2008).
85. Wilson, ''Institutional Influences Affecting the College-Going Decisions'' (see note 56), p. 88
86. Wolfe and Haveman, ''Social and Nonmarket Benefits from Education'' (see note 1).
87. Wilson, ''Institutional Influences Affecting the College-Going Decisions'' (see note 56), p. 83.
88. Sandy Baum and Marie O'Malley, College on Credit: How Borrowers Perceive Their Education Debt: Results of the 2002 National Student Loan Survey (Braintree, Mass.: Nellie Mae, 2003).
89. Pamela Smock and others, ''Everything's There Except Money: How Money Shapes Decisions to Marry among Cohabitating Adults,'' Journal of Marriage and the Family 67 (2000): 680-696;
90. R. Catalano, ''The Health Effects of Economic Insecurity,'' American Journal of Public Health 81 (1991): 1148-1152;
91. Lillian B. Rubin, Families on the Fault Line (New York: HarperCollins, 1994);
92. Vonnie C. McLoyd, ''Minority Children: Introduction to the Special Issue,'' Child Development 61, no. 2 (1990): 263-66.
93. Michael Grossman, ''Education and Nonmarket Outcomes,'' in Handbook of the Economics of Education, vol. I, edited by Eric Hanushek and Finis Welch (Amsterdam: Elsevier B.V., 2006), pp. 578-635.
94. Oreopoulos and Salvanes, ''How Large Are Returns to Schooling?'' (see note 1).
95. Wilson, ''Institutional Influences Affecting the College-Going Decisions'' (see note 56), p. 107.
96. Lorraine G. Johnson and others, ''Managing Stress among Adult Women Students in Community Colleges,'' Community College Journal of Research & Practice 24, no. 4 (2000): 289-300.
97. Nancy L. Deutsch and B. Schmentz, ''I Was Starting from Ground Zero: Constraints and Experiences of Adult Women Returning to College,'' Working Paper (Charlottesville: University of Virginia, 2009), p. 2.
98. Ibid., p. 21.
99. Rebekah Nathan, My Freshman Year: What a Professor Learned by Becoming a Student (Cornell University Press, 2005);
100. Timothy T. Clydesdale, The First Year Out: Understanding American Teens after High School (University of Chicago Press, 2007).
101. Sara Goldrick-Rab, ''Following Their Every Move: How Social Class Shapes Postsecondary Pathways,'' Sociology of Education 79, no. 1 (2006): 61-79;
102. Sara Goldrick-Rab and Fabian Pfeffer, ''Beyond Access: Explaining Socioeconomic Differences in College Transfer,'' Sociology of Education 82, no. 2 (2009): 101-125.
103. Goldrick-Rab and Roksa, ''A Federal Agenda for Promoting Student Success and Degree Completion'' (see note 6);
104. Sara Goldrick-Rab and Seong Won Han, ''The Class Gap in the Gap Year,'' Review of Higher Education (2010).
105. Goldrick-Rab and Roksa, ''A Federal Agenda for Promoting Student Success and Degree Completion'' (see note 6);
106. Jenny Nagaoka and others, ''Barriers to College Attainment: Lessons from Chicago'' (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2009) (www.americanprogress.org/issues/2009/01/chicago_schools.html [Aug. 12, 2009]);
107. Linda Harris and Evelyn Ganzglass, ''Creating Postsecondary Pathways to Good Jobs for Young High School Dropouts: The Possibilities and the Challenges'' (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2008) (www.americanprogress.org/issues/2008/10/postsecondary_pathways.html [Aug. 12, 2009]).
108. Derek V. Price, ''Educational Debt Burden among Student Borrowers: An Analysis of the Baccalaureate & Beyond Panel, 1997 Follow-Up,'' Research in Higher Education 45, no. 7 (2004): 701-737.
109. Goldrick-Rab and Roksa, ''A Federal Agenda for Promoting Student Success and Degree Completion'' (see note 6);
110. Sara Goldrick-Rab and others, ''How Money Matters (or Doesn't) for College Success,'' Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Practice, vol. 24 (Netherlands: Springer, 2009), pp. 1-45.
111. Neil S. Seftor and Sarah E. Turner, ''Back to School: Federal Student Aid Policy and Adult College Enrollment,'' Journal of Human Resources 37, no. 2 (2002): 336-352;
112. Seftor and Turner write, ''The behavioral effects for the traditional college-aged students associated with changes in the availability of Pell funding are modest, but the responsiveness among older students is marked.'' Wilson, ''Institutional Influences Affecting the College-Going Decisions'' (see note 56).
113. David Deming and Susan Dynarski, ''Into College, Out of Poverty? Policies to Increase the Postsecondary Attainment of the Poor,'' Working Paper 15387 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009).
114. Goldrick-Rab and others, ''How Money Matters (or Doesn't)'' (see note 79).
115. Natasha H. Williams, ''The Impact of Medicaid and Other Social Public Policy on African American Men, Their Children and Families'' (Morehouse School of Medicine, Students for Sensible Drug Policy, 2006) (http://aspe.hhs.gov/medicaid/july06/RoxanneLeopperAttachment1.pdf [Aug. 10, 2009]);
116. Students for Sensible Drug Policy, Harmful Drug Law Hits Home: How Many College Students in Each State Lost Financial Aid Due to Drug Convictions? (Washington, 2006) (http://ssdp.org/states/ssdp-state-report.pdf [Aug. 7, 2009]).
117. Darren Wheelock and Christopher Uggen, ''Race, Poverty and Punishment: The Impact of Criminal Sanctions on Racial, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Inequality,'' in The Colors of Poverty: Why Racial and Ethnic Disparities Persist, edited by David Harris and Ann Chih Lin (New York: Russell Sage, 2008), p. 23.
118. Jeanne B. Contado and Wendy Erisman, ''Learning to Reduce Recidivism: A 50-State Analysis of Postsecondary Correctional Education Policy'' (Washington: Institute for Higher Education Policy, 2005) (www.ihep.org/Publications/publications-detail.cfm?id=47 [Aug. 5, 2009]). Nearly all credentials earned while in prison are vocational and are not college degrees. Most instruction is offered by community colleges.
119. Marsha Weissman and others, ''Closing the Doors to Higher Education: Another Collateral Consequence of a Criminal Conviction,'' Center for Community Alternatives (www.communityalternatives.org/pdf/HigherEd.pdf [Aug. 5, 2009]).
120. Susan Dynarski and Judith Scott-Clayton, ''Complexity and Targeting in Federal Student Aid: A Quantitative Analysis,'' NBER Working Paper 13801 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2008).
121. Eric Bettinger and others, ''The Role of Simplification and Information in College Decisions: Results from the H&R Block FAFSA Experiment,'' NBER Working Paper 15361 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009).
122. Melinda Karp and others, ''Dual Enrollment Students in Florida and New York City: Postsecondary Outcomes'' (New York: Community College Research Center, 2008).
123. Brian An, ''The Impact of Dual Enrollment on College Performance and Attainment'' (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2009).
124. Davis Jenkins, Matthew Zeidenberg, and Gregory Kienzl, ''Building Bridges to Postsecondary Training for Low-Skill Adults: Outcomes of Washington State's I-Best Program'' (New York: Community College Research Center, 2009).
125. Goldrick-Rab and others, ''How Money Matters (or Doesn't)'' (see note 79);
126. Regina Deil-Amen and Sara Goldrick-Rab, ''Institutional Transfer and the Management of Risk in Higher Education'' Working Paper (Madison, Wisc.: Wisconsin Center for the Advancement of Postsecondary Education, 2009).
127. Susan Scrivener and Michael Weiss, ''More Guidance, Better Results?'' (New York: MDRC, 2009) (www.mdrc.org/publications/524/full.pdf [Aug. 5, 2009]).
128. Susan Scrivener and others, ''Getting Back on Track'' (New York: MDRC, 2009) (www.mdrc.org/publications/514/full.pdf [Aug. 10, 2009]).
129. LaShawn Richburg-Hayes and others, ''Paying for College Success'' (New York: MDRC, 2009) (www.mdrc.org/publications/531/policybrief.pdf [Aug. 10, 2009]).
130. LaShawn Richburg-Hayes and others, ''Rewarding Persistence'' (New York: MDRC, 2009) (www.mdrc.org/publications/507/full.pdf [Aug. 10, 2009]).
131. Christian Geckeler and others, ''Helping Community College Students Cope with Financial Emergencies'' (New York: MDRC, 2008) (www.mdrc.org/publications/479/full.pdf [Aug. 10, 2009]).
132. Because single parents are undercounted, the amount per family is likely overstated. Kevin Miller, Barbara Gault, and Abby Thorman, ''Improving Child Care Access to Promote Postsecondary Success among Low-Income Single Parents'' (Washington: Institute for Women's Policy Research, forthcoming).
133. ExpectMore.Gov., ''Detailed Information on the Child Care Access Means Parents in School Assessment,'' (www.whitehouse.gov/omb/expectmore/detail/10002082.2007.html [Last update 1/09/2009, Jan. 16, 2010]).