Environmentalism for the atlantic alliance: NATO's experiment with the "challenges of modern society"

Environmental History

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 54-75

  Hamblin, Jacob Darwin ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE; ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS; ENVIRONMENTALISM; FOREIGN POLICY; GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE; NATO; POLITICAL HISTORY; POLITICAL REFORM;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 77957343691     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: 19308892     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/envhis/emq008     Document Type: Review

References (91)

1. Duncan Norton-Taylor, "NATO Will Promote Studies of Society," Washington Post, September 14, 1969, 2.
2. "NATO Joins the Fight to Save the Environment," New York Times, November 7, 1969,3.
3. On the influence of these particular scientists and their discord with each other, see John McCormick, Reclaiming Paradise: The Global Environmental Movement (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989).
4. Anthony Lewis, "Not With a Bang but a Gasp," New York Times, December 15, 1969, 46.
5. Duncan Norton-Taylor, "NATO Will Promote Studies of Society," Washington Post, September 14, 1969, 2.
6. "What NATO Defends," editorial, The Times, April 12, 1969, 9.
7. J. Brooks Flippen, Nixon and the Environment (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000).
8. Despite the extremely partisan nature of environmental politics in the United States by the end of the twentieth century, the issue enjoyed bipartisan support in the late 1960s. See the essay review: Robert D. Lifset, "In Search of Republican Environmentalists," Reviews in American History 36 (2008): 117-25.
9. On the growth of environmental consciousness in the United States, along with its translation into political action, see Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
10. For a critical view of Nixon era legislation, see Matthew J. Lindstrom and Zachary A. Smith, The National Environmental Policy Act: Judicial Misconstruction, Legislative Indifference, and Executive Neglect (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2001).
11. Sara Dant Ewart, "Environmental Politics in the Nixon Era," Journal of Policy History 15 (2003): 345-48.
12. Lawrence Kaplan has written extensively about NATO in several books, but its environmental work plays a minute role in the sweeping history of the organization. See for example Lawrence S. Kaplan, The Long Entanglement: NATO's First 50 Years (New York: Praeger, 1999).
13. The disconnect between military history and environmental history may have more to do with disciplinary biases than anything else. The connections between war, military organizations, and environmental issues are myriad. One fine example of the significance of military imagery in confronting nature is Edmund Russell, War and Nature: Fighting Humans and Insects with Chemicals from World War I to Silent Spring (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
14. Interest among environmental historians in peacetime military activities has picked up in recent years, particularly among geographers interested in militarized spaces. See especially P. Whitney Lackenbauer and Matthew Farish, "The Cold War on Canadian Soil: Militarizing a Northern Environment," Environmental History 12 (October 2007): 920-50.
15. Environmental historians increasingly are taking an interest in war and strategy, with explicit interest in bringing the fields together. See for examples Lisa M Brady, "The Wilderness of War: Nature and Strategy in the American Civil War," Environmental History 10 (July 2005): 421-47;
16. J. R. McNeill, "Woods andWarfare inWorld History," Environmental History 9 (July 2004): 388-410.
17. J. Brooks Flippen, "Richard Nixon, Russell Train, and the Birth of Modern American Environmental Diplomacy," Diplomatic History 32 (2008): 1613-38.
18. "U.S. Asks NATO to Aid on Safety," Washington Post, October 9, 1969, F8.
19. Gunnar Randers, "Report to the Council by the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society," January 15 1970, C-M(70)1, NATO Archives, Brussels, Belgium (hereafter NATO Archives).
20. Ibid. Gunnar Randers, "Report to the Council by the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society,", 1970, Ibid.
21. Gunnar Randers, "Report to the Council by the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society,", 1970, Ibid.
22. "Summary record of a meeting of the Council held at the NATO Headquarters," meetings January 28, 1970, and February 2, 1970, dated February 13, 1970, C-R(70)5, NATO Archives.
23. On Nixon's desire to use environmental action to forge bonds with the Soviet Union, specifically through Russell Train, see Flippen, "Richard Nixon, Russell Train," 1613-38.
24. Richard Nixon to Manlio Brosio, March 3, 1971, reproduced in "Correspondence with President Nixon," March 30, 1971, PO/71/168, NATO Archives.
25. Manlio Brosio to Richard Nixon, March 25, 1971, reproduced in "Correspondence with President Nixon," March 30, 1971, PO/71/168, NATO Archives.
26. "Summary record of a meeting of the Council held at the NATO Headquarters," meeting March 25, 1970, C-R(70)13, NATO Archives.
27. F. B. Wheeler, "NATO and the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society," September 3, 1971, FCO 55/659, British National Archives, Kew, England (hereafter BNA).
28. J. Brooks Flippen, Conservative Conservationist: Russell E. Train and the Emergence of American Environmentalism (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006).
29. Flippen, "Richard Nixon, Russell Train," 620.
30. Russell Train to Peter Walker, September 7, 1971, FCO 55/660, BNA.
31. The French diplomat being quoted was M. Manet. R. M. Graham to M. Gowlland, October 5, 1971, FCO 55/660, BNA.
32. Sophia Lambert to Mark Gowlland, October 21, 1971, FCO 55/660, BNA.
33. F. B. Wheeler, "The NATO and a European Security Conference," Octoer 5, 1971, FCO 55/667, British National Archives.
34. F. B. Wheeler, "The NATO and a European Security Conference," 1971, Ibid.
35. "Record of a Private Meeting held in the Secretary-General's Office at 10:30 am on Friday 2 April," n.d., FCO 55/656, BNA.
36. P. J. McCormick to R. J. G. Rowcliffe, April, 1971, FCO 55/656, BNA.
37. R. P. Flower to Ronald Arculus, April 23, 1971, FCO 55/658, BNA.
38. Ronald Arculus, "Review of CCMS Activities," FCO 55/657, BNA.
39. Secretary General to Permanent Representatives, May 19, 1971, PO/71/240, NATO Archives.
40. "Progress Report by the Chairman of the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society," May 21, 1971, C-M(71)37(Revised), NATO Archives.
41. "Summary record of a meeting of the Council held at the NATO Headquarters," meeting March 25, 1970, C-R(70)13, NATO Archives.
42. "Summary record of a meeting of the Council held at the NATO Headquarters," meeting April 8, 1970, C-R(70)15, NATO Archives.
43. William A. Buckingham, Jr., Operation Ranch Hand: The Air Force and Herbicides in Southeast Asia, 1961-1971 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1982).
44. Michael Leapman, "Mr. Walker Outlines Strategy to Secure Survival of Civilization," The Times, May 27, 1971, 7.
45. Peter Braestrup, "Agnew Raps Lindsay Plan for Direct Aid to Big Cities,"Washington Post, May 29, 1971, A2.
46. Lindsay's remarks are reprinted in John V. Lindsay, "For New 'National Cities,'" New York Times, June 9, 1971, 43.
47. "U.N. Body Prepared to Fight Pollution," New York Times, May 7, 1971; 14;
48. James Ferons, "No World Control Seen on Pollution," New York Times, May 9, 1971, 17.
49. "Conference on European Security and Cooperation: Negotiating Approaches," November 16, 1971, C-M(71)69
50. NATO Archives. Scholars of the Soviet Union routinely criticize the Soviet government for precisely these reasons, and after the cold war more extensive knowledge of environmental negligence came to light. See Murray Feshbach and Arthur Friendly, Jr., Ecocide in the USSR: Health and Nature under Siege (New York: Basic Books, 1993).
51. However, Douglas R. Weiner has pointed to a longstanding nature protection movement in the Soviet Union that survived despite government scorn. See Douglas R. Weiner, A Little Corner of Freedom: Russian Nature Protection from Stalin to Gorbachev (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999).
52. "Conference on European Security and Cooperation: Negotiating Approaches," November 16, 1971, C-M(71)69, NATO Archives.
53. "U.N. Body Prepared to Fight Pollution," New York Times, May 7, 1971, 14;
54. James Ferons, "No World Control Seen on Pollution," New York Times, May 9, 1971, 17.
55. "Substance and Procedures of Possible East-West Negotiations," May 24, 1971, C-M(71)40(Revised), NATO Archives.
56. Claire Sterling, "Cold War Politics Threatens Environment Planners," Washington Post, January 19, 1972, A20.
57. Sterling C., Cold War Politics Threatens Environment Planners, 1972, Ibid.
58. H. A. J. Staples to F. B. Wheeler, 6 Oct 1971, FCO 55/672, BNA.
59. Ibid.
60. Summary Record of a Meeting of the Council held at the NATO Headquarters, meeting held November 17, 1971, dated November 25, 1971, C-R(71)65, NATO Archives.
61. International Institute for Environmental Affairs, The Human Environment: Science and International Decision-making (1971). See also Richard N. Gardner, "The Role of the UN in Environmental Problems," International Organization 26 (1972): 237-54.
62. M. I. Rothwell to Frank Wheeler, October 20, 1971, FCO 55/673, BNA.
63. M. W. Holdgate, "International Organization for the Environment," November 2, 1971, FCO 55/674, BNA.
64. Eldon Griffiths, note, April 20, 1971, FCO 55/658, BNA.
65. P. Goodman to Ronald Arculus, May 4, 1971, FCO 55/655, BNA.
66. K. G. MacInnes to Ronald Arculus, July 9 1971, FCO 55/655, BNA.
67. C. H. W. Hodges to Ronald Arculus, July 2, 1971, FCO 55/655, BNA.
68. "Environment," July 8, 1971, FCO 55/655, BNA.
69. Ronald Arculus, "Brussels Group Meeting on 8 July about Rationalization of International Work on the Environment," July 9, 1971, FCO 55/655, BNA.
70. Ronald Arculus, "Brussels Group Meeting on 8 July about Rationalization of International Work on the Environment,", Ibid.
71. M. W. Holdgate to Ronald Arculus, June 1, 1971, FCO 55/655, BNA.
72. Ibid.
73. Ronald Arculus, "Brussels Group Meeting on 8 July about Rationalization of International Work on the Environment," July 9, 1971, FCO 55/655, BNA.
74. F. B. Wheeler to M. E. Rothwell, July 20, 1971, FCO 55/655, BNA.
75. W. G. Doherty to M. Bourke, September 20, 1971, FCO 55/672, BNA.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. Ibid.
79. Martin Holdgate to Ronald Arculus, October 19, 1971, FCO 55/673, BNA.
80. XXVI Session of the General Assembly, United Nations, 11 Committee, Statement of the Brazilian Delegate Ambassador Miguel Ozo Rio de Almeida, on Item 47 of the Agenda (United National Conference on the Human Environment), November 29, 1971, FCO 55/674, BNA.
81. M. I. Rothwell to Ronald Arculus, November 3, 1971, FCO 55/660, BNA.
82. Ibid.
83. J. B. Ure to M. I. Rothwell, November 9, 1971, FCO 55/660, BNA.
84. Wayland Kennet, "The Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment," International Affairs 48 (1972), 33-45. Quote on p. 35.
85. Paul Kemezis, "NATO Advancing on Environment," New York Times, October 28, 1973, 8.
86. "NATO Program Said to Improve Air Quality in Nation's Big Cities," New York Times, October 17, 1976, 5.
87. John Barkdull, "Nixon and the Marine Environment."
88. Maurice F. Strong, "One Year After Stockholm: An Ecological Approach to Management," Foreign Affairs 51(1973): 690-707.
89. This view is especially clear in Flippen, Nixon and the Environment.
90. See especially John Barkdull, "Nixon and the Marine Environment," Presidential Studies Quarterly 28 (1998): 587-605.
91. On this policy of "linkage," see John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy during the Cold War (New York: Oxford, 2005).