A Review of perioperative glucose control in the neurosurgical population

Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology

Volumn 3, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 1352-1364

  Atkins, Joshua H ^a   Smith, David S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Cerebral glucose metabolism; Hyperglycemic brain injury; Intensive insulin therapy; Perioperative glucose control

Indexed keywords

ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; INSULIN;

ANIMAL; BLOOD; BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING; BRAIN; CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISORDER; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DRUG EFFECT; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIA; INTENSIVE CARE; METABOLISM; NEUROSURGERY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERIOPERATIVE PERIOD; PREDICTION AND FORECASTING; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; TIME; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ANIMALS; BLOOD GLUCOSE; BLOOD GLUCOSE SELF-MONITORING; BRAIN; CRITICAL CARE; CRITICAL ILLNESS; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; HUMANS; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; INSULIN; NEUROSURGICAL PROCEDURES; PERIOPERATIVE CARE; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; TIME FACTORS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 77957299703     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19322968     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/193229680900300615     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (96)

1. Baird TA, Parsons MW, Phanh T, Butcher KS, Desmond PM, Tress BM, Colman PG, Chambers BR, Davis SM. Persistent poststroke hyperglycemia is independently associated with infarct expansion and worse clinical outcome. Stroke. 2003;34(9):2208-14. (Pubitemid 37099838)
2. Claassen J, Vu A, Kreiter KT, Kowalski RG, Du EY, Ostapkovich N, Fitzsimmons BF, Connolly ES, Mayer SA. Effect of acute physiologic derangements on outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(3):832-8. (Pubitemid 38344142)
3. Donnan GA, Levi C. Glucose and the ischaemic brain: too much of a good thing? Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(5):380-1. (Pubitemid 46551855)
4. Frontera JA, Fernandez A, Claassen J, Schmidt M, Schumacher HC, Wartenberg K, Temes R, Parra A, Ostapkovich ND, Mayer SA. Hyperglycemia after SAH: predictors, associated complications, and impact on outcome. Stroke. 2006;37(1):199-203. (Pubitemid 43732071)
5. Garg R, Chaudhuri A, Munschauer F, Dandona P. Hyperglycemia, insulin, and acute ischemic stroke: a mechanistic justification for a trial of insulin infusion therapy. Stroke. 2006;37(1):267-73. (Pubitemid 43732090)
6. Jeremitsky E, Omert LA, Dunham CM, Wilberger J, Rodriguez A. The impact of hyperglycemia on patients with severe brain injury. J Trauma. 2005;58(1):47-50. (Pubitemid 40221732)
7. Sakowitz OW, Wolfrum S, Sarrafzadeh AS, Stover JF, Dreier JP, Dendorfer A, Benndorf G, Lanksch WR, Unterberg AW. Relation of cerebral energy metabolism and extracellular nitrite and nitrate concentrations in patients after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2001;21(9):1067-76. (Pubitemid 32823742)
8. McGirt MJ, Chaichana KL, Gathinji M, Attenello F, Than K, Ruiz AJ, Olivi A, Quiñones-Hinojosa A. Persistent outpatient hyperglycemia is independently associated with decreased survival after primary resection of malignant brain astrocytomas. Neurosurgery. 2008;63(2):286-91; discussion 291.
9. Kimura K, Iguchi Y, Inoue T, Shibazaki K, Matsumoto N, Kobayashi K, Yamashita S. Hyperglycemia independently increases the risk of early death in acute spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. J Neurol Sci. 2007;255(1-2):90-4. (Pubitemid 46414023)
10. Bilotta F, Spinelli A, Giovannini F, Doronzio A, Delfini R, Rosa G. The effect of intensive insulin therapy on infection rate, vasospasm, neurologic outcome, and mortality in neurointensive care unit after intracranial aneurysm clipping in patients with acute subarachnoid hemorrhage: a randomized prospective pilot trial. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2007;19(3):156-60. (Pubitemid 47012351)
11. Lipshutz AK, Gropper MA. Perioperative glycemic control: an evidence-based review. Anesthesiology. 2009;110(2):408-21.
12. Bilotta F, Giovannini F, Caramia R, Rosa G. Glycemia management in neurocritical care patients: a review. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2009;21(1):2-9.
13. Subramaniam B, Panzica PJ, Novack V, Mahmood F, Matyal R, Mitchell JD, Sundar E, Bose R, Pomposelli F, Kersten JR, Talmor DS. Continuous perioperative insulin infusion decreases major cardiovascular events in patients undergoing vascular surgery: a prospective, randomized trial. Anesthesiology. 2009;110(5):970-7.
14. Vanhorebeek I, Ingels C, Van den Berghe G. Intensive insulin therapy in high-risk cardiac surgery patients: evidence from the Leuven randomized study. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2006;18(4):309-16. (Pubitemid 46464510)
15. NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators, Finfer S, Chittock DR, Su SY, Blair D, Foster D, Dhingra V, Bellomo R, Cook D, Dodek P, Henderson WR, Hébert PC, Heritier S, Heyland DK, McArthur C, McDonald E, Mitchell I, Myburgh JA, Norton R, Potter J, Robinson BG, Ronco JJ. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(13):1283-97.
16. Fitch, W. Brain metabolism. In: Cottrell JE, Smith DS, eds. Anesthesia and neurosurgery. 4th ed. St. Louis; Mosby: 2001, 1-17.
17. Gibson GE, Dienel GA, eds. Brain energetics. Integration of molecular and cellular processes. 3rd ed. New York: Springer; 2007.
18. Lupi A, Bertagnoni G, Salgarello M, Orsolon P, Malfatti V, Zanco P. Cerebellar vermis relative hypermetabolism: an almost constant PET finding in an injured brain. Clin Nucl Med. 2007;32(6):445-51. (Pubitemid 46791463)
19. Fulham MJ, Brunetti A, Aloj L, Raman R, Dwyer AJ, Di Chiro G. Decreased cerebral glucose metabolism in patients with brain tumors: an effect of corticosteroids. J Neurosurg. 1995;83(4):657-64.
20. Bergsneider M, Hovda DA, Shalmon E, Kelly DF, Vespa PM, Martin NA, Phelps ME, McArthur DL, Caron MJ, Kraus JF, Becker DP. Cerebral hyperglycolysis following severe traumatic brain injury in humans: a positron emission tomography study. J Neurosurg. 1997;86(2):241-51. (Pubitemid 27130684)
21. Oertel MF, Schwedler M, Stein M, Wachter D, Scharbrodt W, Schmidinger A, Böker DK. Cerebral energy failure after subarachnoid hemorrhage: the role of relative hyperglycolysis. J Clin Neurosci. 2007;14(10):948-54. (Pubitemid 47333183)
22. Statler KD, Janesko KL, Melick JA, Clark RS, Jenkins LW, Kochanek PM. Hyperglycolysis is exacerbated after traumatic brain injury with fentanyl vs. isoflurane anesthesia in rats. Brain Res. 2003;994(1):37-43. (Pubitemid 37452435)
23. Glenn TC, Kelly DF, Boscardin WJ, McArthur DL, Vespa P, Oertel M, Hovda DA, Bergsneider M, Hillered L, Martin NA. Energy dysfunction as a predictor of outcome after moderate or severe head injury: indices of oxygen, glucose, and lactate metabolism. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2003;23(10):1239-50. (Pubitemid 37229527)
24. Zielke HR, Zielke CL, Baab PJ, Tildon JT. Effect of fluorocitrate on cerebral oxidation of lactate and glucose in freely moving rats. J Neurochem. 2007;101(1):9-16. (Pubitemid 46426464)
25. Lemire J, Mailloux RJ, Appanna VD. Mitochondrial lactate dehydrogenase is involved in oxidative-energy metabolism in human astrocytoma cells (CCF-STTG1). PLoS ONE. 2008;3(2):e1550.
26. Rice AC, Zsoldos R, Chen T, Wilson MS, Alessandri B, Hamm RJ, Bullock MR. Lactate administration attenuates cognitive deficits following traumatic brain injury. Brain Res. 2002;928(1-2):156-9. (Pubitemid 34159062)
27. Pellerin L, Magistretti PJ. Food for thought: challenging the dogmas. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2003;23(11):1282-6. (Pubitemid 37409790)
28. Schurr A. Lactate, glucose and energy metabolism in the ischemic brain (Review). Int J Mol Med. 2002;10(2):131-6.
29. Schurr A. Bench-to-bedside review: a possible resolution of the glucose paradox of cerebral ischemia. Crit Care. 2002;6(4):330-4. (Pubitemid 34863701)
30. Pellerin L, Magistretti PH. Glutamate uptake into astrocytes stimulates aerobic glycolysis: A mechanism coupling neuronal activity to glucose utilization. PNAS. 1994;91:10625-10629. (Pubitemid 24329051)
31. Hertz L. Bioenergetics of cerebral ischemia: a cellular perspective. Neuropharmacology. 2008;55(3):289-309.
32. Hutchinson PJ, O'Connell MT, Al-Rawi PG, Maskell LB, Kett-White R, Gupta AK, Richards HK, Hutchinson DB, Kirkpatrick PJ, Pickard JD. Clinical cerebral microdialysis: a methodological study. J Neurosurg. 2000;93(1):37-43. (Pubitemid 30457321)
33. Payne RS, Tseng MT, Schurr A. The glucose paradox of cerebral ischemia: evidence for corticosterone involvement. Brain Res. 2003;971(1):9-17. (Pubitemid 36412059)
34. Bartnik BL, Hovda DA, Lee PW. Glucose metabolism after traumatic brain injury: estimation of pyruvate carboxylase and pyruvate dehydrogenase flux by mass isotopomer analysis. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24(1):181-94. (Pubitemid 46214424)
35. Sutherland GR, Tyson RL, Auer RN. Truncation of the krebs cycle during hypoglycemic coma. Med Chem. 2008;4(4):379-85.
36. Martínez-Sánchez M, Striggow F, Schröder UH, Kahlert S, Reymann KG, Reiser G. Na(+) and Ca(2+) homeostasis pathways, cell death and protection after oxygen-glucose-deprivation in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. Neuroscience. 2004;128(4):729-40.
37. Falciglia M. Causes and consequences of hyperglycemia in critical illness. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2007;10(4):498-503. (Pubitemid 46934121)
38. Prakash A, Matta BF. Hyperglycaemia and neurological injury. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2008;21(5):565-9.
39. Duckrow RB, Beard DC, Brennan RW. Regional cerebral blood flow decreases during hyperglycemia. Ann Neurol. 1985;17(3):267-72. (Pubitemid 15136601)
40. Kodl CT, Seaquist ER. Cognitive dysfunction and diabetes mellitus. Endocr Rev. 2008;29(4):494-511. (Pubitemid 351831510)
41. Cukierman-Yaffee T. The relationship between dysglycemia and cognitive dysfunction. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2009;10(1):70-4.
42. Kamada H, Yu F, Nito C, Chan PH. Influence of hyperglycemia on oxidative stress and matrix metalloproteinase-9 activation after focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion in rats: relation to blood-brain barrier dysfunction. Stroke. 2007;38(3):1044-9. (Pubitemid 46568472)
43. Banks WA. The source of cerebral insulin. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004;490(1-3):5-12. (Pubitemid 38482157)
44. Esposito K, Nappo F, Marfella R, Giugliano G, Giugliano F, Ciotola M, Quagliaro L, Ceriello A, Giugliano D. Inflammatory cytokine concentrations are acutely increased by hyperglycemia in humans: role of oxidative stress. Circulation. 2002;106(16):2067-72. (Pubitemid 35192812)
45. Singh R, Barden A, Mori T, Beilin L. Advanced glycation end-products: a review. Diabetologia. 2001;44(2):129-46. (Pubitemid 32156196)
46. Toth C, Martinez J, Zochodne DW. RAGE, diabetes, and the nervous system. Curr Mol Med. 2007;7(8):766-76.
47. Badjatia N, Topcuoglu MA, Buonanno FS, Smith EE, Nogueira RG, Rordorf GA, Carter BS, Ogilvy CS, Singhal AB. Relationship between hyperglycemia and symptomatic vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(7):1603-9. (Pubitemid 40980619)
48. Kerner A, Schlenk F, Sakowitz O, Haux D, Sarrafzadeh A. Impact of hyperglycemia on neurological deficits and extracellular glucose levels in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients. Neurol Res. 2007;29(7):647-53. (Pubitemid 350086060)
49. Schlenk F, Graetz D, Nagel A, Schmidt M, Sarrafzadeh AS. Insulin-related decrease in cerebral glucose despite normoglycemia in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Crit Care. 2008;12(1):R9.
50. Thiele RH, Pouratian N, Zuo Z, Scalzo DC, Dobbs HA, Dumont AS, Kassell NF, Nemergut EC. Strict glucose control does not affect mortality after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Anesthesiology. 2009;110(3):603-10.
51. Godoy DA, Piñero GR, Svampa S, Papa F, Di Napoli M. Hyperglycemia and short-term outcome in patients with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care. 2008;9(2):217-29.
52. Pulsinelli WA, Levy DE, Sigsbee B, Scherer P, Plum F. Increased damage after ischemic stroke in patients with hyperglycemia with or without established diabetes mellitus. Am J Med. 1983;74(4):540-54.
53. Parsons MW, Barber PA, Desmond PM, Baird TA, Darby DG, Byrnes G, Tress BM, Davis SM. Acute hyperglycemia adversely affects stroke outcome: a magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy study. Ann Neurol. 2002;52(1):20-8. (Pubitemid 34693739)
54. Stead LG, Gilmore RM, Bellolio MF, Mishra S, Bhagra A, Vaidyanathan L, Decker WW, Brown RD Jr. Hyperglycemia as an independent predictor of worse outcome in non-diabetic patients presenting with acute ischemic stroke. Neurocrit Care. 2009;10(2):181-6.
55. Fuentes B, Castillo J, San José B, Leira R, Serena J, Vivancos J, Dávalos A, Nuñez AG, Egido J, Díez-Tejedor E, Stroke Project of the Cerebrovascular Diseases Study Group, Spanish Society of Neurology. The prognostic value of capillary glucose levels in acute stroke: the GLycemia in Acute Stroke (GLIAS) study. Stroke. 2009;40(2):562-8.
56. Poppe AY, Majumdar SR, Jeerakathil T, Ghali W, Buchan AM, Hill MD, Canadian Alteplase for Stroke Effectiveness Study Investigators. Admission hyperglycemia predicts a worse outcome in stroke patients treated with intravenous thrombolysis. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(4):617-22.
57. Woodworth GF, Chaichana KL, McGirt MJ, Sciubba DM, Jallo GI, Gokaslan Z, Wolinsky JP, Witham TF. Predictors of ambulatory function after surgical resection of intramedullary spinal cord tumors. Neurosurgery. 2007;61(1):99,105; discussion 105-6.
58. Cryer PE. Hypoglycaemia: the limiting factor in the glycaemic management of the critically ill? Diabetologia. 2006;49(8):1722-5. (Pubitemid 44025024)
59. Sakowitz OW, Sarrafzadeh AS, Benndorf G, Lanksch WR, Unterberg AW. On-line microdialysis following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2001;77:141-4. (Pubitemid 33759235)
60. Prado R, Ginsberg MD, Dietrich WD, Watson BD, Busto R. Hyperglycemia increases infarct size in collaterally perfused but not end-arterial vascular territories. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1988;8(2):186-92. (Pubitemid 18079687)
61. Hamilton MG, Tranmer BI, Auer RN. Insulin reduction of cerebral infarction due to transient focal ischemia. J Neurosurg. 1995;82(2):262-8.
62. Vriesendorp TM, DeVries JH, Hoekstra JB. Hypoglycemia and strict glycemic control in critically ill patients. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2008;14(4):397-402.
63. Kosiborod M, Inzucchi SE, Goyal A, Krumholz HM, Masoudi FA, Xiao L, Spertus JA. Relationship between spontaneous and iatrogenic hypoglycemia and mortality in patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction. JAMA. 2009;301(15):1556-64.
64. Strong AJ, Smith SE, Whittington DJ, Meldrum BS, Parsons AA, Krupinski J, Hunter AJ, Patel S, Robertson C. Factors influencing the frequency of fluorescence transients as markers of peri-infarct depolarizations in focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke. 2000;31(1):214-22. (Pubitemid 30035777)
65. Hartings JA, Gugliotta M, Gilman C, Strong AJ, Tortella FC, Bullock MR. Repetitive cortical spreading depolarizations in a case of severe brain trauma. Neurol Res. 2008;30(8):876-82.
66. Strong AJ. The management of plasma glucose in acute cerebral ischaemia and traumatic brain injury: more research needed. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34(7):1169-72.
67. Dreier JP, Woitzik J, Fabricius M, Bhatia R, Major S, Drenckhahn C, Lehmann TN, Sarrafzadeh A, Willumsen L, Hartings JA, Sakowitz OW, Seemann JH, Thieme A, Lauritzen M, Strong AJ. Delayed ischaemic neurological deficits after subarachnoid haemorrhage are associated with clusters of spreading depolarizations. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 12):3224-37. (Pubitemid 44871438)
68. Auer RN, Hugh J, Cosgrove E, Curry B. Neuropathologic findings in three cases of profound hypoglycemia. Clin Neuropathol. 1989;8(2):63-8. (Pubitemid 19169366)
69. Auer RN, Siesjö BK. Hypoglycaemia: brain neurochemistry and neuropathology. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993;7(3):611-25. (Pubitemid 23243429)
70. Auer RN. Hypoglycemic brain damage. Metab Brain Dis. 2004;19(3-4):169-75. (Pubitemid 39361179)
71. Auer RN, Wieloch T, Olsson Y, Siesjö BK. The distribution of hypoglycemic brain damage. Acta Neuropathol. 1984;64(3):177-91. (Pubitemid 14032997)
72. Ho CL, Ang CB, Lee KK, Ng IH. Effects of glycaemic control on cerebral neurochemistry in primary intracerebral haemorrhage. J Clin Neurosci. 2008;15(4):428-33.
73. Bruno A, Kent TA, Coull BM, Shankar RR, Saha C, Becker KJ, Kissela BM, Williams LS. Treatment of hyperglycemia in ischemic stroke (THIS): a randomized pilot trial. Stroke. 2008;39(2):384-9. (Pubitemid 351619460)
74. Gray CS, Hildreth AJ, Sandercock PA, O'Connell JE, Johnston DE, Cartlidge NE, Bamford JM, James OF, Alberti KG, GIST Trialists Collaboration. Glucose-potassium-insulin infusions in the management of post-stroke hyperglycaemia: the UK Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST-UK). Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(5):397-406. (Pubitemid 46551852)
75. Johnston KC, Hall CE, Kissela BM, Bleck TP, Conaway MR, van Wingerden J. The Glucose Regulation in Acute Stroke Patients (GRASP) trial outcome results. Abstracts from the 2009 International Stroke Conference. 2009;40(4):e106.
76. Van den Berghe G, Schoonheydt K, Becx P, Bruyninckx F, Wouters PJ. Insulin therapy protects the central and peripheral nervous system of intensive care patients. Neurology. 2005;64(8):1348-53. (Pubitemid 40570499)
77. Azevedo JR, Lima ER, Cossetti RJ, Azevedo RP. Intensive insulin therapy versus conventional glycemic control in patients with acute neurological injury: a prospective controlled trial. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2007;65(3B):733-8. (Pubitemid 47628649)
78. Gentile NT, Siren K. Glycemic control and the injured brain. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2009;27(1):151-69, x.
79. Els T, Klisch J, Orszagh M, Hetzel A, Schulte-Mönting J, Schumacher M, Lücking CH. Hyperglycemia in patients with focal cerebral ischemia after intravenous thrombolysis: influence on clinical outcome and infarct size. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2002;13(2):89-94. (Pubitemid 34195677)
80. Drummond JC, Moore SS. The influence of dextrose administration on neurologic outcome after temporary spinal cord ischemia in the rabbit. Anesthesiology. 1989;70(1):64-70. (Pubitemid 19042766)
81. Sieber F, Smith DS, Kupferberg J, Crosby L, Uzzell B, Buzby G, March K, Nann L. Effects of intraoperative glucose on protein catabolism and plasma glucose levels in patients with supratentorial tumors. Anesthesiology. 1986;64(4):453-9. (Pubitemid 16113180)
82. Loh JA, Verbalis JG. Diabetes insipidus as a complication after pituitary surgery. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2007;3(6):489-94. (Pubitemid 46808743)
83. Sieber FE, Smith DS, Traystman RJ, Wollman H. Glucose: a reevaluation of its intraoperative use. Anesthesiology. 1987;67(1):72-81. (Pubitemid 18003431)
84. Zornow MH, Scheller MS. Intraoperative fluid management during craniotomy. In: Cottrell JE, Smith DS, eds. Anesthesia and neurosurgery. 4th ed. St. Louis; Mosby: 2001, 237-49.
85. Griesdale DE, de Souza RJ, van Dam RM, Heyland DK, Cook DJ, Malhotra A, Dhaliwal R, Henderson WR, Chittock DR, Finfer S, Talmor D. Intensive insulin therapy and mortality among critically ill patients: a meta-analysis including NICE-SUGAR study data. CMAJ. 2009;180(8):821-7.
86. Wiener RS, Wiener DC, Larson RJ. Benefits and risks of tight glucose control in critically ill adults: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;300(8):933-44.
87. Zhang X, Guo T, Wang H, He W, Mei H, Hong M, Yu J, Hu Y, Song S. Potential biomarkers of acute cerebral infarction detected by SELDI-TOF-MS. Am J Clin Pathol. 2008;130(2):299-304.
88. Schuhmann MU, Heine G, Skardelly M, Jaeger M, Selle H. Brain injury and proteomics/peptidomics: is it relevant? an overview. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2005;95:465-70.
89. Ottens AK, Kobeissy FH, Fuller BF, Liu MC, Oli MW, Hayes RL, Wang KK. Novel neuroproteomic approaches to studying traumatic brain injury. Prog Brain Res. 2007;161:401-18. (Pubitemid 47017418)
90. Nogoy N. Neuroproteomics: the hunt for biomarkers of neurotrauma. Andrew Ottens talks to Nicole Nogoy. Expert Rev Proteomics. 2007;4(3):343-5.
91. Prieto DA, Ye X, Veenstra TD. Proteomic analysis of traumatic brain injury: the search for biomarkers. Expert Rev Proteomics. 2008;5(2):283-91. (Pubitemid 351670931)
92. Krüger M, Kratchmarova I, Blagoev B, Tseng YH, Kahn CR, Mann M. Dissection of the insulin signaling pathway via quantitative phosphoproteomics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(7):2451-6.
93. Rosenbloom AL. Mecasermin (recombinant human insulin-like growth factor I). Adv Ther. 2009;26(1):40-54.
94. Kalfon P, Preiser JC. Tight glucose control: should we move from intensive insulin therapy alone to modulation of insulin and nutritional inputs? Crit Care. 2008;12(3):156.
95. Kastin AJ, Akerstrom V, Pan W. Interactions of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) with the blood-brain barrier. J Mol Neurosci. 2002;18(1-2):7-14. (Pubitemid 34252619)
96. Funnell MM. The therapeutic role of incretin mimetics and DPP-4 inhibitors. Diabetes Educ. 2009;35 Suppl 1:12S-7S.