Pleural procedures and thoracic ultrasound: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010

Thorax

Volumn 65, Issue SUPPL. 2, 2010, Pages

  Havelock, Tom ^a   Teoh, Richard ^b   Laws, Diane ^c   Gleeson, Fergus ^d  

^a SOUTHAMPTON GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b CASTLE HILL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^c ROYAL BOURNEMOUTH HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^d CHURCHILL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIA; ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS; ANTICOAGULATION; ARTICLE; BLEEDING; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; BRITISH THORACIC SOCIETY PLEURAL DISEASE GUIDELINE 2010; HUMAN; LUNG EDEMA; MANOMETRY; MEDICAL EDUCATION; PAIN; PATIENT POSITIONING; PNEUMOTHORAX; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEDATION; THORACOCENTESIS; THORAX DRAINAGE; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TUBE REMOVAL; ALGORITHM; ASEPSIS; CLINICAL COMPETENCE; ECHOGRAPHY; EDUCATION; ENDOSCOPIC ECHOGRAPHY; INSTRUMENTATION; METHODOLOGY; PLEURA EFFUSION; PULMONOLOGY; SUCTION; THORAX; TUBE;

ALGORITHMS; ASEPSIS; CHEST TUBES; CLINICAL COMPETENCE; EDUCATION, MEDICAL, GRADUATE; HUMANS; PATIENT POSITIONING; PLEURAL EFFUSION; PNEUMOTHORAX; PULMONARY MEDICINE; SUCTION; THORAX; ULTRASONOGRAPHY, INTERVENTIONAL;

EID: 77956039851     PISSN: 00406376     EISSN: 14683296     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/thx.2010.137026     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. National Patient Safety Agency. Risks of chest drain insertion. NPSA/2008/ RRR003, 2008 May 15.
2. Harris A, O'Driscoll B, Turkington P. Survey of major complications of intercostal chest drain insertion in the UK. Postgrad Med J 2010;86:68-72. (4).
3. Griffiths JR, Roberts N. Do junior doctors know where to insert chest drains safely? Postgrad Med J 2005;81:456-8. (2-).
4. Luketich JD, Kiss M, Hershey J, et al. Chest tube insertion: a prospective evaluation of pain management. Clin J Pain 1998;14:152-4. (2+).
5. Wayne DB, Barsuk JH, O'Leary KJ, et al. Mastery learning of thoracentesis skills by internal medicine residents using simulation technology and deliberate practice. J Hosp Med 2008;3:48-54.
6. Berkenstadt H, Munz Y, Trodler G, et al. Evaluation of the trauma-man® simulator for training in chest drain insertion. Eur J Trauma 2006;32:523-6.
7. McVay PA, Toy PT. Lack of increased bleeding after paracentesis and thoracentesis in patients with mild coagulation abnormalities. Transfusion 1991;31:164-71. (2e).
8. Brandstetter RD, Karetzky M, Rastogi R, et al. Pneumothorax after thoracentesis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Heart Lung 1994;23:67-70. (2-).
9. Doyle JJ, Hnatiuk OW, Torrington KG, et al. Necessity of routine chest roentgenography after thoracentesis. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:816-20. (2+).
10. Colt HG, Brewer N, Barbur E. Evaluation of patient-related and procedure-related factors contributing to pneumothorax following thoracentesis. Chest 1999;116:134-8. (2-).
11. Boland GW, Gazelle GS, Girard MJ, et al. Asymptomatic hydropneumothorax after therapeutic thoracentesis for malignant pleural effusions. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;170:943-6. (3).
12. Heidecker J, Huggins JT, Sahn SA, et al. Pathophysiology of pneumothorax following ultrasound-guided thoracentesis. Chest 2006;130:1173-84. (3).
13. Ponrartana S, Laberge JM, Kerlan RK, et al. Management of patients with "ex vacuo" pneumothorax after thoracentesis. Acad Radiol 2005;12: 980-6. (3).
14. Seneff MG, Corwin RW, Gold LH, et al. Complications associated with thoracocentesis. Chest 1986;90:97-100. (2-).
15. Diacon AH, Brutsche MH, Soler M. Accuracy of pleural puncture sites: a prospective comparison of clinical examination with ultrasound. Chest 2003;123:436-41. (2+).
16. Weingardt JP, Guico RR, Nemcek AA Jr, et al. Ultrasound findings following failed, clinically directed thoracenteses. J Clin Ultrasound 1994;22:419-26. (2).
17. Bartter T, Mayo PD, Pratter MR, et al. Lower risk and higher yield for thoracentesis when performed by experienced operators. Chest 1993;103:1873-6. (3).
18. Aelony Y. Thoracentesis without ultrasonic guidance infrequent complications when performed by an experienced pulmonologist. J Bronchol 2005;12:200-2. (2-).
19. Grogan DR, Irwin RS, Channick R, et al. Complications associated with thoracentesis. A prospective, randomized study comparing three different methods. Arch Intern Med 1990;150:873-7. (1-).
20. Raptopoulos V, Davis LM, Lee G, et al. Factors affecting the development of pneumothorax associated with thoracentesis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1991;156:917-20. (2-).
21. Kohan JM, Poe RH, Israel RH, et al. Value of chest ultrasonography versus decubitus roentgenography for thoracentesis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;133:1124-6. (1).
22. Barnes TW, Morgenthaler TI, Olson EJ, et al. Sonographically guided thoracentesis and rate of pneumothorax. J Clin Ultrasound 2005;33:442-6. (2-).
23. Yu CJ, Yang PC, Wu HD, et al. Ultrasound study in unilateral hemithorax opacification. Image comparison with computed tomography. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:430-4. (2-).
24. Doelken P, Strange C. Chest ultrasound for "dummies". Chest 2003;123:332-3. (4).
25. Carney M, Ravin CE. Intercostal artery laceration during thoracocentesis: increased risk in elderly patients. Chest 1979;75:520-2. (3).
26. Pihlajamaa K, Bode MK, Puumalainen T, et al. Pneumothorax and the value of chest radiography after ultrasound-guided thoracocentesis. Acta Radiol 2004;45:828-32. (2-).
27. MacDuff A, MacDuff R. Pleural depth in medical patients. Chest 2009;136:948-9. (3).
28. Harcke HT, Pearse LA, Levy AD, et al. Chest wall thickness in military personnel: implications for needle thoracentesis in tension pneumothorax. Mil Med 2007;172:1260-3. (3).
29. Zengerink I, Brink PR, Laupland KB, et al. Needle thoracostomy in the treatment of a tension pneumothorax in trauma patients: what size needle? J Trauma 2008;64:111-14. (3).
30. Feller-Kopman D, Berkowitz D, Boiselle P, et al. Large-volume thoracentesis and the risk of reexpansion pulmonary edema. Ann Thorac Surg 2007;84:1656-61. (2-).
31. Mynarek G, Brabrand K, Jakobsen JA, et al. Complications following ultrasoundguided thoracocentesis. Acta Radiol 2004;45:519-22. (3).
32. Jones PW, Moyers JP, Rogers JT, et al. Ultrasound-guided thoracentesis: is it a safer method? Chest 2003;123:418-23. (2).
33. Mahfood S, Hix WR, Aaron BL, et al. Reexpansion pulmonary edema. Ann Thorac Surg 1988;45:340-5. (3).
34. Josephson T, Nordenskjold CA, Larsson J, et al. Amount drained at ultrasound-guided thoracentesis and risk of pneumothorax. Acta Radiol 2009;50:42-7. (2-).
35. Conen A, Joos L, Bingisser R. Ipsilateral reexpansion pulmonary edema after drainage of a spontaneous pneumothorax: a case report. J Med Case Reports (Electronic Resource) 2007;1:107. (3).
36. Rozenman J, Yellin A, Simansky DA, et al. Re-expansion pulmonary oedema following spontaneous pneumothorax. Respir Med 1996;90:235-8. (3).
37. Tariq SM, Sadaf T. Reexpansion pulmonary edema after treatment of pneumothorax. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2046. (3).
38. Iqbal M, Multz AS, Rossoff LJ, et al. Reexpansion pulmonary edema after VATS successfully treated with continuous positive airway pressure. Ann Thorac Surg 2000;70:669-71. (3).
39. Matsuura Y, Nomimura T, Murakami H, et al. Clinical analysis of reexpansion pulmonary edema. Chest 1991;100:1562-6. (3).
40. Feller-Kopman D, Walkey A, Berkowitz D, et al. The relationship of pleural pressure to symptom development during therapeutic thoracentesis. Chest 2006;129:1556-60. (2-).
41. Petersen WG, Zimmerman R. Limited utility of chest radiograph after thoracentesis. Chest 2000;117:1038-42. (2-).
42. Capizzi SA, Prakash UB. Chest roentgenography after outpatient thoracentesis. Mayo Clin Proc 1998;73:948-50. (3).
43. General Medical Council. Consent: patients and doctors making decisions together. London: General Medical Council, 2008.
44. Liu CM, Hang LW, Chen WK, et al. Pigtail tube drainage in the treatment of spontaneous pneumothorax. Am J Emerg Med 2003;21:241-4. (3).
45. Horsley A, Jones L, White J, et al. Efficacy and complications of small-bore, wireguided chest drains. Chest 2006;130:1857-63. (2-).
46. Crouch JD, Keagy BA, Delany DJ. "Pigtail" catheter drainage in thoracic surgery. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;136:174-5. (3).
47. Keeling AN, Leong S, Logan PM, et al. Empyema and effusion: outcome of image-guided small-bore catheter drainage. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2008;31:135-41. (3).
48. Gammie JS, Banks MC, Fuhrman CR, et al. The pigtail catheter for pleural drainage: a less invasive alternative to tube thoracostomy. JSLS 1999;3:57-61. (3).
49. Jain S, Deoskar RB, Barthwal MS, et al. Study of pigtail catheters for tube thoracostomy. Armed Forces Med J India 2006;62:40-1. (3).
50. Conces DJ Jr, Tarver RD, Gray WC, et al. Treatment of pneumothoraces utilizing small caliber chest tubes. Chest 1988;94:55-7. (3).
51. Davies HE, Merchant S, McGown A. A study of the complications of small bore 'Seldinger' intercostal chest drains. Respirology 2008;13:603-7. (3).
52. Collop NA, Kim S, Sahn SA. Analysis of tube thoracostomy performed by pulmonologists at a teaching hospital. Chest 1997;112:709-13. (2-).
53. Aylwin CJ, Brohi K, Davies GD, et al. Pre-hospital and in-hospital thoracostomy: indications and complications. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2008;90:54-7. (2-).
54. Bailey RC. Complications of tube thoracostomy in trauma. J Accid Emerg Med 2000;17:111-14. (3).
55. Baldt MM, Bankier AA, Germann PS, et al. Complications after emergency tube thoracostomy: assessment with CT. Radiology 1995;195:539-43. (3).
56. Ball CG, Lord J, Laupland KB, et al. Chest tube complications: how well are we training our residents? Can J Surg 2007;50:450-8. (3).
57. Daly RC, Mucha P, Pairolero PC, et al. The risk of percutaneous chest tube thoracostomy for blunt thoracic trauma. Ann Emerg Med 1985;14:865-70. (3).
58. Deneuville M. Morbidity of percutaneous tube thoracostomy in trauma patients. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2002;22:673-8. (2+).
59. Etoch SW, Bar-Natan MF, Miller FB, et al. Tube thoracostomy. Factors related to complications. Arch Surg 1995;130:521-5. (3).
60. Heng K, Bystrzycki A, Fitzgerald M, et al. Complications of intercostal catheter insertion using EMST techniques for chest trauma. Aust NZ J Surg 2004;74:420-3. (3).
61. Chan L, Reilly KM, Henderson C, et al. Complication rates of tube thoracostomy. Am J Emerg Med 1997;15:368-70. (3).
62. Maxwell RA, Campbell DJ, Fabian TC, et al. Use of presumptive antibiotics following tube thoracostomy for traumatic hemopneumothorax in the prevention of empyema and pneumoniaea multi-center trial. J Trauma 2004;57:742-8. (1-).
63. Stone HH, Symbas PN, Hooper CA. Cefamandole for prophylaxis against infection in closed tube thoracostomy. J Trauma 1981;21:975-7. (1+).
64. Aguilar MM, Battistella FD, Owings JT, et al. Posttraumatic empyema. Risk factor analysis. Arch Surg 1997;132:647-50. (2-).
65. Cant PJ, Smyth S, Smart DO. Antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated for chest stab wounds requiring closed tube thoracostomy. Br J Surg 1993;80:464-6. (1+).
66. Demetriades D, Breckon V, Breckon C, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis in penetrating injuries of the chest. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1991;73:348-51. (1-).
67. Nichols RL, Smith JW, Muzik AC, et al. Preventive antibiotic usage in traumatic thoracic injuries requiring closed tube thoracostomy. Chest 1994;106:1493-8. (1+).
68. Gonzalez RP, Holevar MR. Role of prophylactic antibiotics for tube thoracostomy in chest trauma. Am Surg 1998;64:617-20. (1+).
69. Fallon WF Jr, Wears RL. Prophylactic antibiotics for the prevention of infectious complications including empyema following tube thoracostomy for trauma: results of meta-analysis. J Trauma 1992;33:110-16. (1+).
70. Evans JT, Green JD, Carlin PE, et al. Meta-analysis of antibiotics in tube thoracostomy. Am Surg 1995;61:215-19. (1-).
71. Clementsen P, Evald T, Grode G, et al. Treatment of malignant pleural effusion: pleurodesis using a small percutaneous catheter. A prospective randomized study. Respir Med 1998;92:593-6. (1-).
72. Chetty GK, Battula NR, Govindaswamy R, et al. Comparative analysis of the Bonanno catheter and tube thorocostomy in effective aspiration of pleural effusion. Heart Surg Forum 2006;9:-7314. (2-).
73. Casola G, vanSonnenberg E, Keightley A, et al. Pneumothorax: radiologic treatment with small catheters. Radiology 1988;166:89-91. (2-).
74. Vedam H, Barnes DJ. Comparison of large-and small-bore intercostal catheters in the management of spontaneous pneumothorax. Intern Med J 2003;33:495-9. (2-).
75. Benton IJ, Benfield GF. Comparison of a large and small-calibre tube drain for managing spontaneous pneumothoraces. Respir Med 2009;103:1436-40. (3).
76. Macha DB, Thomas J, Nelson RC. Pigtail catheters used for percutaneous fluid drainage: comparison of performance characteristics. Radiology 2006;238:1057-63. (2).
77. Parulekar W, Di PG, Matzinger F, et al. Use of small-bore vs large-bore chest tubes for treatment of malignant pleural effusions. Chest 2001;120: 19-25. (3).
78. Akhan O, Ozkan O, Akinci D, et al. Image-guided catheter drainage of infected pleural effusions. Diagn Interv Radiol 2007;13:204-9. (3).
79. Moulton JS, Benkert RE, Weisiger KH, et al. Treatment of complicated pleural fluid collections with image-guided drainage and intracavitary urokinase. Chest 1995;108:1252-9. (3).
80. Silverman SG, Mueller PR, Saini S, et al. Thoracic empyema: management with image-guided catheter drainage. Radiology 1988;169:5-9. (3).
81. Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. Controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med 2005;352:865-74. (3).
82. Levinson GM, Pennington DW. Intrapleural fibrinolytics combined with image-guided chest tube drainage for pleural infection. Mayo Clin Proc 2007;82:407-13. (3).
83. vanSonnenberg E, Nakamoto SK, Mueller PR, et al. CT-and ultrasound-guided catheter drainage of empyemas after chest-tube failure. Radiology 1984;151:349-53. (3).
84. Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. Implementing ensuring safe sedation practice for healthcare procedures in adults. London: Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2001.
85. Cantin L, Chartrand-Lefebvre C, Lepanto L, et al. Chest tube drainage under radiological guidance for pleural effusion and pneumothorax in a tertiary care university teaching hospital: review of 51 cases. Can Respir J 2005;12:29-33. (3).
86. Remerand F, Luce V, Badachi Y, et al. Incidence of chest tube malposition in the critically ill: a prospective computed tomography study. Anesthesiology 2007;106:1112-19. (2+).
87. Millikan JS, Moore EE, Steiner E, et al. Complications of tube thoracostomy for acute trauma. Am J Surg 1980;140:738-41. (3).
88. Lim KE, Tai SC, Chan CY, et al. Diagnosis of malpositioned chest tubes after emergency tube thoracostomy: is computed tomography more accurate than chest radiograph? Clin Imaging 2005;29:401-5. (3).
89. Ponn RB, Silverman HJ, Federico JA. Outpatient chest tube management. Ann Thorac Surg 1997;64:1437-40. (3).
90. Roeggla M, Roeggla G, Muellner M, et al. The cost of treatment of spontaneous pneumothorax with the thoracic vent compared with conventional thoracic drainage. Chest 1996;110:303. (3).
91. Alphonso N, Tan C, Utley M, et al. A prospective randomized controlled trial of suction versus non-suction to the under-water seal drains following lung resection. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2005;27:391-4. (1+).
92. Marshall MB, Deeb ME, Bleier JI, et al. Suction vs water seal after pulmonary resection: a randomized prospective study. Chest 2002;121:831-5. (1-).
93. Bar-El Y, Ross A, Kablawi A, et al. Potentially dangerous negative intrapleural pressures generated by ordinary pleural drainage systems. Chest 2001;119:511-14.
94. Ayed AK. Suction versus water seal after thoracoscopy for primary spontaneous pneumothorax: prospective randomized study. Ann Thorac Surg 2003;75:1593-6. (1-).
95. Reed MF, Lyons JM, Luchette FA, et al. Preliminary report of a prospective, randomized trial of underwater seal for spontaneous and iatrogenic pneumothorax. J Am Coll Surg 2007;204:84-90. (1-).
96. Bell RL, Ovadia P, Abdullah F, et al. Chest tube removal: end-inspiration or endexpiration? J Trauma 2001;50:674-7. (1-).
97. Martino K, Merrit S, Boyakye K, et al. Prospective randomized trial of thoracostomy removal algorithms. J Trauma 1999;46:369-71. (1-).
98. Davis JW, Mackersie RC, Hoyt DB, et al. Randomized study of algorithms for discontinuing tube thoracostomy drainage. J Am Coll Surg 1994;179:553-7. (1-).
99. Goerg C, Schwerk WB, Goerg K, et al. Pleural effusion: an "acoustic window" for sonography of pleural metastases. J Clin Ultrasound 1991;19:93-7. (3).
100. Warakaulle DR, Traill ZC. Imaging of pleural disease. Imaging 2004;16:10-21. (4).
101. Herth FJ, Becker HD. Transthoracic ultrasound. Respiration 2003;70:87-94. (4).
102. Diacon AH, Theron J, Bolliger CT. Transthoracic ultrasound for the pulmonologist. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2005;11:307-12. (4).
103. Tsai TH, Yang PC. Ultrasound in the diagnosis and management of pleural disease. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2003;9:282-90. (4).
104. Beckh S, Bolcskei PL, Lessnau KD. Real-time chest ultrasonography: a comprehensive review for the pulmonologist. Chest 2002;122:1759-73. (4).
105. Eibenberger KL, Dock WI, Ammann ME, et al. Quantification of pleural effusions: sonography versus radiography. Radiology 1994;191:681-4. (2-).
106. Lomas DJ, Padley SG, Flower CD. The sonographic appearances of pleural fluid. Br J Radiol 1993;66:619-24. (3).
107. Ellis JR, Gleeson FV. Non-traumatic thoracic emergencies: imaging and treatment of thoracic fluid collections (including pneumothorax). Eur Radiol 2002;12:1922-30. (4).
108. Yang PC, Luh KT, Chang DB, et al. Value of sonography in determining the nature of pleural effusion: analysis of 320 cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992;159:29-33. (2+).
109. Roch A, Bojan M, Michelet P, et al. Usefulness of ultrasonography in predicting pleural effusions >500 mL in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Chest 2005;127:224-32. (2-).
110. Vignon P, Chastagner C, Berkane V, et al. Quantitative assessment of pleural effusion in critically ill patients by means of ultrasonography. Crit Care Med 2005;33:1757-63. (2-).
111. Tsai TH, Jerng J-S, Yang P-C. Clinical applications of transthoracic ultrasound in chest medicine. J Med Ultrasound 2008;16:7-25. (4).
112. Wu RG, Yuan A, Liaw YS, et al. Image comparison of real-time gray-scale ultrasound and color Doppler ultrasound for use in diagnosis of minimal pleural effusion. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:510-14. (2+).
113. Yang PC. Color doppler ultrasound of pulmonary consolidation. Eur J Ultrasound 1996;3:169-78. (4).
114. Qureshi NR, Rahman NM, Gleeson FV. Thoracic ultrasound in the diagnosis of malignant pleural effusion. Thorax 2009;64:139-43. (2+).
115. Chian CF, Su WL, Soh LH, et al. Echogenic swirling pattern as a predictor of malignant pleural effusions in patients with malignancies. Chest 2004;126:129-34. (2-).
116. Yang PC, Luh KT, Chang DB, et al. Ultrasonographic evaluation of pulmonary consolidation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;146:757-62. (2-).
117. Mathis G. ThoraxsonographyePart II: Peripheral pulmonary consolidation. Ultrasound Med Biol 1997;23:1141-53. (4).
118. Kearney SE, Davies CW, Davies RJ, et al. Computed tomography and ultrasound in parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Radiol 2000;55:542-7. (3).
119. Heffner JE. Diagnosis and management of thoracic empyemas. Curr Opin Pulm Med 1996;2:198-205. (4).
120. Chen KY, Liaw YS, Wang HC, et al. Sonographic septation: a useful prognostic indicator of acute thoracic empyema. J Ultrasound Med 2000;19:837-43. (2).
121. Shankar S, Gulati M, Kang M, et al. Image-guided percutaneous drainage of thoracic empyema: can sonography predict the outcome? Eur Radiol 2000;10:495-9. (2).
122. vanSonnenberg E, Wittich GR, Goodacre BW, et al. Percutaneous drainage of thoracic collections. J Thorac Imaging 1998;13:74-82. (4).
123. Targhetta R, Bourgeois JM, Chavagneux R, et al. Ultrasonographic approach to diagnosing hydropneumothorax. Chest 1992;101:931-4. (3).
124. Reissig A, Kroegel C. Accuracy of transthoracic sonography in excluding postinterventional pneumothorax and hydropneumothorax. Comparison to chest radiography. Eur J Radiol 2005;53:463-70. (2).
125. Goodman TR, Traill ZC, Phillips AJ, et al. Ultrasound detection of pneumothorax. Clin Radiol 1999;54:736-9. (2-).
126. Slater A, Goodwin M, Anderson KE, et al. COPD can mimic the appearance of pneumothorax on thoracic ultrasound. Chest 2006;129:545-50. (2).
127. Koh DM, Burke S, Davies N, et al. Transthoracic US of the chest: clinical uses and applications. Radiographics 2002;22:-1. (4).
128. Emamian SA, Kaasbol MA, Olsen JF, et al. Accuracy of the diagnosis of pleural effusion on supine chest x-ray. Eur Radiol 1997;7:57-60. (2).
129. Lichtenstein D, Hulot JS, Rabiller A, et al. Feasibility and safety of ultrasoundaided thoracentesis in mechanically ventilated patients. Intensive Care Med 1999;25:955-8. (2-).
130. Mayo PH, Goltz HR, Tafreshi M, et al. Safety of ultrasound-guided thoracentesis in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Chest 2004;125:1059-62. (2+).
131. Faculty of Clinical Radiology. Ultrasound training recommendations for medical and surgical specialities. London: Royal College of Radiologists, 2005.
132. Harnsberger HR, Lee TG, Mukuno DH. Rapid, inexpensive real-time directed thoracentesis. Radiology 1983;146:545-6. (3).
133. Collins TR, Sahn SA. Thoracocentesis. Clinical value, complications, technical problems, and patient experience. Chest 1987;91:817-22. (2+).
134. Grodzin CJ, Balk RA. Indwelling small pleural catheter needle thoracentesis in the management of large pleural effusions. Chest 1997;111:981-8. (3).