Cultural stress: How interactions with and among foreign populations affect military personnel

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 36, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 585-603

  Azari, Jaz ^a   Dandeker, Christopher ^b   Greenberg, Neil ^b  

^a US Department of State   (United States)

^b KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Combat and operational stress; Culture shock; Foreign cultures; Modern military

Indexed keywords

EID: 77954721053     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X09358648     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. E stimates are from December 31, 2008, and include all active-duty military personnel. See the Department of Defense Personnel and Procurement Statistics for an overview on deployed personnel (http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/MILITARY/history/hst0812.pdf; accessed July 29, 2009).
2. "Coalition Deaths by Country," Iraq Coalition Casualty Count, http://icasualties.org/oif/ DeathsByCountry.aspx (accessed July 29, 2009).
3. "Coalition Fatalities by Year, Operation Enduring Freedom," http://icasualties.org/oef/ (accessed July 29, 2009).
4. Estimates are from July 28, 2009, and include both Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom wounded service members. See "Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) U.S. Casualty Status" and "Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) U.S. Casualty Status," http://www.defenselink.mil/news/casualty.pdf (accessed July 29, 2009).
5. Health and Safety Executive, "Work-Related Stress," http://www.hse.gov.uk/stress/ (accessed August 20, 2008).
6. Adrian Furham and Stephen Bochner, Culture Shock: Psychological Reactions to unfamiliar environments (London: Methuen, 1986), 47.
7. See F. Battistelli, "Peacekeeping and the Post-Modern Soldier," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1997): 467-84.
8. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans. and ed. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1976), 65.
9. Megan M. Thompson and Donald R. McCreary, "Enhancing Mental Readiness in Military Personnel," in Military Life: The Psychology of Service in Peace and Combat, vol. 2, ed. Amy B. Adler, Carl Andrew Castro, and Thomas W. Britt (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006), 54.
10. K. C. Hyams, F. S. Wignall, and R. Roswell, "War Syndromes and Their Evaluation: From the U.S. Civil War to the Persian Gulf War," Annals of Internal Medicine 125, 5 (1996): 398-403
11. Edgar Jones and Simon Wessely, Shell Shock to PTSD: Military Psychiatry from 1900 to the Gulf War, Maudsley Monograph 4 (Hove, UK: Psychology Press, 2005).
12. Russell W. Glenn and Todd C. Helmus, Steeling the Mind: Combat Stress Reactions and Their Implications for Urban Warfare (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2005), 11.
13. Ibid., 13-22.
14. For publications by the U.S. military, see http://chppm-www.apgea.army.mil/ dhpw/Population/combat.aspx and http://www.usmc-mccs.org/cosc/index.cfm.
15. Robert M. Bray, Carol S. Camlin, John A. Fairbank, George H. Duntman, and Sara H. Wheeless, "The Effect of Stress on Job Functioning of Military Men and Women," Armed Forces & Society 27, 3 (2001): 397-417.
16. David J. Westhuis, Richard J. Fafara, and Philip Ouellette, "Does Ethnicity Affect the Coping of Military Spouses?" Armed Forces & Society 32, 4 (2006): 584-603.
17. Department of the Army, Combat and Operational Stress Control, FM 4-02.51 (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2006), glossary 5.
18. Joint Doctrine, Joint Force Employment, "Military Operations Other Than War," JP 3-07, 16-27.
19. Bray et al., "Effect of Stress," 398.
20. Department of the Army, Combat and Operational Stress Control, 1-4. For a complete list, see 1-4.
21. William P. Nash, "The Stressors of War," in Combat Stress Injury: Theory, Research, and Management, ed. Charles R. Figley and William P. Nash (New York: Routledge, 2007), 18.
22. Department of the Army, Combat and Operational Stress Control, 1-5.
23. Nash, "Stressors of War," 2007, 18.
24. Steve J. Lewis, "Combat Stress Control: Putting Principle into Practice," in Military Life: The Psychology of Service in Peace and Combat, vol. 2, ed. Amy B. Adler, Carl Andrew Castro, and Thomas W. Britt (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006), 124-25.
25. Ibid., 125.
26. Glenn and Helmus, Steeling the Mind, 2005, 23.
27. Paul T. Bartone, "Hardiness Protects against War-Related Stress in Army Reserve Forces," Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research 51, 2 (1999): 72-81.
28. Lewis, "Combat Stress Control," 125.
29. Thompson and McCreary, "Enhancing Mental Readiness," 55.
30. King's Centre for Military Health Research, King's Centre for Military Health Research: A Ten Year Report (London: Kings College London, 2006), 30-32.
31. Lewis, "Combat Stress Control," 129.
32. Charles R. Figley and William P. Nash, "Introduction: For Those Who Bear the Battle," in Combat Stress Injury: Theory, Research, and Management, ed. Charles R. Figley and William P. Nash (New York: Routledge, 2007), 16.
33. M. J. Garrido and M. J. Muñoz, "Morale as a Protection Factor against Mission-Related Stress," in Human Dimensions of Military Operations-Military Leaders' Strategies for Addressing Stress and Psychological Support, meeting proceedings, RTO-MP-HFM-134, paper 10 (Neuilly-sur-Seine, France: RTO, 2006), 10/1-10/20.
34. Paul T. Bartone, "Resilience under Military Operational Stress: Can Leaders Influence Hardiness?" Military Psychology 18, suppl. (2006): S133.
35. Ibid., S133.
36. V. Langston, M. Gould, and Neil Greenberg, "Culture: What Is Its Effect on Stress in the Military?" Military Medicine 172, 9 (2007): 931-35.
37. Thompson and McCreary, "Enhancing Mental Readiness," 55.
38. King's Centre for Military Health Research, King's Centre for Military Health Research: A Ten Year Report, 26.
39. David L. Shelton, "Some Advice for the Prospective Advisor," Marine Corps Gazette 75, 10 (1991): 57.
40. T. E. Lawrence, "Twenty-Seven Articles," Arab Bulletin 27 (1917): 126-33.
41. G. Hofstede, "National Cultures and Corporate Cultures," in Communication Between Cultures, ed. L. A. Samovar and R. E. Porter (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1984), 51.
42. Kalervo Oberg, Culture Shock, Bobbs-Merrill Reprint Series in the Social Sciences, A-329 (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1954).
43. Also see Michael Kim Zapf, "Cross-Cultural Transitions and Wellness: Dealing with Culture Shock," International Journal for the Advance- ment of Counselling 14 (1991): 107.
44. Oberg, Culture Shock, 1954, 1.
45. J. P. Spradley and M. Phillips, "Culture and Stress: A Quantitative Analysis" (1972), cited in.
46. Zapf, "Cross-Cultural Transitions," 109.
47. S. Lundstedt, "An introduction to some evolving problems in cross cultural research," Journal of Social Issues, 19 (1963), cited in.
48. Adrian Furnham, "Communicating across cultures: A social skills perspective," Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 2, 2 (1989): 205-222.
49. Zapf provides a detailed comparison of stages of culture shock in "Cross-Cultural Transitions," 105-19.
50. Furham and Bochner, Culture Shock, 131.
51. Naomi McPherson, "Culture Shock: Encountering Others, Encountering Ourselves," in Culture Shock: Experiencing "The Other," ed. Kevin Roberts, Andra Thakur, and Gary Tunnell (Lantzville, Canada: Eletheria Press, 1999), 41.
52. L. M. Barna, "The Stress Factor in Intercultural Relations," in Handbook of Intercultural Training, vol. 2, ed. D. Landis and R. W. Brislin (New York: Pergamon, 1983), 19-49.
53. Thomas C. Taveggia and Lourdes Nieves Gibboney Santos, "Cross Cultural Adjustment: A Test of the 'Uncertainty Reduction Principle,'" International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management 1 (2001): 154.
54. Ibid., 155-57.
55. Andrew R. Millburn and Mark C. Lombard, "Marine Foreign Military Advisors: The Road Ahead," Marine Corps Gazette 90, 4 (2006): 62.
56. Alfred H. Hausrath, The KMAG Advisor: Role and Problems of the Military Advisor in Developing an Indigenous Army for Combat Operations in Korea (Chevy Chase, MD: Johns Hopkins University Operations Research Office, 1957), cited in.
57. Robert D., Ramsey III, Advice for Advisors: Suggestions and Observations from Lawrence to the Present (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2006), 19-23.
58. Robert D., Ramsey III, Advising Indigenous Forces: American Advisors in Korea, Vietnam, and El Salvador (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2006), 51.
59. Bartone, "Resilience under Military Operational Stress," 133-37.
60. Also see F. Battistelli, T. Ammendola, and M. G. Galantino, "The Fuzzy Environment and Postmodern Soldiers: The Motivations of the Italian Contingent in Bosnia," Small Wars and Insurgencies 10, 2 (1999): 138-60.
61. Lewis, "Combat Stress Control," 121.
62. Author interview with soldier, Diyala, Iraq, July 22, 2009.
63. Kimberly Johnson, "Corps: End Piecemeal Transition Teams," Marine Corps Times, February 13, 2008.
64. Email interview with senior service member, Joint Center for International Security Force Assistance, August 18, 2008.
65. Battistelli, "Peacekeeping and the Post-Modern Soldier," 138-60.
66. Ramsey, Advising Indigenous Forces, 109, emphasis added.
67. Christopher Dandeker and James Gow, "Military Culture and Strategic Peacekeeping," in Warriors in Peacekeeping: Points of Tension in Complex Cultural Encounters, ed. Jean Callaghan and Mathias Schönborn (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing, 2004): 13.
68. Robert A. Rubinstein, Diana M. Keller, and Michael E. Scherger, "Culture and Interoperability in Integrated Missions," International Peacekeeping 15, 4 (2008): 540-55.
69. Joseph Soeters and Philippe Manigart, Military Cooperation in Multinational Peace Operations: Managing Cultural Diversity and Crisis Response (Boston: Routledge, 2008).
70. B. Boene, J. Callaghan, and C. Dandeker, "Warriors in Peacekeeping: An Overview of Themes and Issues," in Warriors in Peacekeeping: Points of Tension in Complex Cultural Encounters, ed. Jean Callaghan and Mathias Schönborn (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing, 2004), 401-36.
71. Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry: A Study (Ottawa, Canada: Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces to Somalia, 1997).
72. Joseph L. Soeters, Cristina-Rodica Poponete, and Joseph T. Page Jr., "Culture's Consequences in the Military," in Military Life: The Psychology of Service in Peace and Combat, vol. 4, ed. Amy B. Adler, Carl Andrew Castro, and Thomas W. Britt (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006): 14.
73. Franz Kernic, "Peacekeeping in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Austrian Experience: A Case Study," in Warriors in Peacekeeping: Points of Tension in Complex Cultural Encounters, ed. Jean Callaghan and Mathias Schönborn (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing, 2004), 43.
74. Bernard Boëne, "France as Peacekeeper in Bosnia-Herzegovina," in Warriors in Peacekeeping: Points of Tension in Complex Cultural Encounters, ed. Jean Callaghan and Mathias Schönborn (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing, 2004), 216.
75. Donna Winslow, "Canadian Warriors in Peacekeeping," in Warriors in Peacekeeping: Points of Tension in Complex Cultural Encounters, ed. Jean Callaghan and Mathias Schönborn (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing, 2004), 216.
76. Charles C. Krulak, "The Strategic Corporal: Leadership in the Three Block War," Marines Magazine, http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/usmc/strategic_corporal.htm (accessed August 18, 2008).
77. Max Boot, "Beyond the Three-Block War," http://www.cfr.org/publication/10204/beyond_the_3block_war.html?breadcrumb=%2Fpublication%2Fpublication_list%3Ftype%3Djournal_article%26page%3D10 (accessed July 28, 2009).
78. King's Centre for Military Health Research, King's Centre for Military Health Research: A Ten Year Report, 26-27.
79. Email interview, Colonel, U.S. Army Special Forces (ret.), August 8, 2008.
80. Gary Brito, "Managing Combat Stress: The Role of the Battalion Commander," Infantry, March 1, 2007, 7.
81. Ramsey, Advising Indigenous Forces, 45.
82. Ibid., 12.
83. Gerald C. Hickey, The American Military Advisor and His Foreign Counterpart: The Case of Vietnam.
84. Ramsey, Advising Indigenous Forces, 59.
85. Jeff Weinhofer, "Advice from a Former Military Transition Team Advisor," Armor 116, 1 (2007): 39.
86. Ibid., 39.
87. Ibid., 39.
88. Mark M. Weber, "U.S. Military Advisors: A Need for Guiding Principles," Military Review 87, 2 (2007): 112.
89. Ramsey, Advising Indigenous Forces, 71-72.