Effects of blood pressure changes on Alzheimer's disease

Neuroepidemiology

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 202-212

  Feldstein, Carlos A ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDAD DE BUENOS AIRES   (Argentina)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Hypertension; Hypotension

Indexed keywords

AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN[1-42]; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ATENOLOL; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CANDESARTAN; CAPTOPRIL; DIHYDROPYRIDINE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; ENALAPRIL; FUROSEMIDE; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; IMIDAPRIL; LISINOPRIL; NITRENDIPINE; PERINDOPRIL; POTASSIUM SPARING DIURETIC AGENT; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ARTERIAL STIFFNESS; BLOOD PRESSURE; BRAIN ATHEROSCLEROSIS; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG EFFECT; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTENSION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE;

AGE OF ONSET; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CEREBROVASCULAR DISORDERS; COGNITION DISORDERS; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE PROGRESSION; HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTENSION; INCIDENCE; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 77954676472     PISSN: 02515350     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000316872     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. Bird TD, Miller BL: Dementia; in Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Jameson JL, Loscalzo J: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, ed 17. New York, McGraw Hill, 2008, chapt 365.
2. Blennow K, de Leon MJ, Zetterberg H: Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 2006; 368: 387-403.
3. Braak H, Braak E: Neuropathological stageing of Alzheimer-related changes. Acta Neuropathol 1991; 82: 239-259.
4. Buckner RL, Snyder AZ, Shannon BJ, LaRossa G, Sachs R, Fotenos AF, Sheline YI, Klunk WE, Mathis CA, Morris JC, Mintun MA: Molecular, structural, and functional characterization of Alzheimer's disease: evidence for a relationship between default activity, amyloid, and memory. J Neurosci 2005; 25: 7709-7717.
5. Braak H, Alafuzoff I, Arzberger T, Kretzschmar H, del Tredici K: Staging of Alzheimer disease-associated neurofibrillary pathology using paraffin sections and immunocytochemistry. Acta Neuropathol 2006; 112: 389-404.
6. Greicius MD, Srivastava G, Reiss AL, Menon V: Default-mode network activity distinguishes Alzheimer's disease from healthy aging: evidence from functional MRI. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101: 4637-4642.
7. Plassman BL, Langa KM, Fisher GG, Heeringa SG, Weir DR, Ofstedal MB, Burke JR, Hurd MD, Potter GG, Rodgers WL, Steffens DC, Willis RJ, Wallace RB: Prevalence of dementia in the United States: the Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study. Neuroepidemiology 2007; 29: 125-132.
8. Alzheimer's Association: 2009 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement 2009; 5: 234-270.
9. Fratiglioni L, Launer LJ, Andersen K, Breteler MM, Copeland JR, Dartigues JF, Lobo A, Martinez-Lage J, Soininen H, Hofman A: Incidence of dementia and major subtypes in Europe: a collaborative study of populationbased cohorts. Neurologic Diseases in the Elderly Research Group. Neurology 2000; 54(suppl 5):S10-S15.
10. Kalaria RN, Maestre GE, Arizaga R, Friedland RP, Galasko D, Hall K, Luchsinger JA, Ogunniyi A, Perry EK, Potocnik F, Prince M, Stewart R, Wimo A, Zhang ZX, Antuono P, World Federation of Neurology Dementia Research Group: Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia in developing countries: prevalence, management, and risk factors. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7: 812-826.
11. Ukraintseva S, Sloan F, Arbeev K, Yashin A: Increasing rates of dementia at time of declining mortality from stroke. Stroke 2006; 37: 1155-1159.
12. Bertram L, Tanzi RE: Genome-wide association studies in Alzheimer's disease. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:R137-R145.
13. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL Jr, Jones DW, Materson BJ, Oparil S, Wright JT Jr, Roccella EJ, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute Joint National Committee on Prevention Detection Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure, National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee: The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003; 289: 2560-2572. (Pubitemid 37430158)
14. Cutler JA, Sorlie PD, Wolz M, Thom T, Fields LE, Roccella EJ: Trends in hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control rates in United States adults between 1988-1994 and 1999-2004. Hypertension 2008; 52: 818-827.
15. Chobanian AV: The hypertension paradox: more uncontrolled disease despite improved therapy. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 878-887.
16. Plantinga LC, Miller ER 3rd, Stevens LA, Saran R, Messer K, Flowers N, et al, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Chronic Kidney Disease Surveillance Team: Blood pressure control among persons without and with chronic kidney disease: US trends and risk factors 1999-2006. Hypertension 2009; 54: 47-56.
17. Elias MF, Wolf PA, D'Agostino RM, Cobb J, White LR: Untreated blood pressure level is inversely related to cognitive functioning: the Framingham study. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 138: 353-364.
18. Elias PK, Elias MF, Robbins MA, Budge MM: Blood pressure-related cognitive decline: does age make a difference? Hypertension 2004; 44: 631-636.
19. Knecht S, Wersching H, Lohmann H, Bruchmann M, Duning T, Dziewas R, Berger K, Ringelstein EB: High-normal blood pressure is associated with poor cognitive performance. Hypertension 2008; 51: 663-668.
20. Verghese J, Lipton RB, Hall CB, Kuslansky G, Katz MJ: Low blood pressure and the risk of dementia in very old individuals. Neurology 2003; 61: 1667-1672.
21. Qiu C, von Strauss E, Fastbom J, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L: Low blood pressure and risk of dementia in the Kungsholmen project: a 6-year follow-up study. Arch Neurol 2003; 60: 223-228.
22. McKhann G, Drachman D, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price D, Stadlan EM: Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of the Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease. Neurology 1984; 34: 939-944.
23. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 4. Washington, American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
24. Chui HC, Victoroff JI, Margolin D, Jagust W, Shankle R, Katzman R: Criteria for the diagnosis of ischemic vascular dementia proposed by the State of California Alzheimer's Disease Diagnostic and Treatment Centers. Neurology 1992; 42: 473-480.
25. Purnell C, Gao S, Callahan CM, Hendrie HC: Cardiovascular risk factors and incident Alzheimer Disease: a systematic review of the literature. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2009; 23: 1-10.
26. Prince M, Cullen M, Mann A: Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease and dementia: a case-control study based on the MRC elderly hypertension trial. Neurology 1994; 44: 97-104.
27. Snowdon DA, Greiner LH, Mortimer JA, Riley KP, Greiner PA, Markesbery WR: Brain infarction and the clinical expression of Alzheimer disease: the Nun Study. JAMA 1997; 277: 813-817.
28. Snowdon DA, Nun Study: Healthy aging and dementia: findings from the Nun Study. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139: 450-454.
29. Esiri MM, Nagy Z, Smith MZ, Barnetson L, Smith AD: Cerebrovascular disease and threshold for dementia in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 1999; 354: 919-920.
30. Hayden KM, Zandi PP, Lyketsos CG, Khachaturian AS, Bastian LA, Charoonruk G, Tschanz JT, Norton MC, Pieper CF, Munger RG, Breitner JC, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Cache County Investigators: Vascular risk factors for incident Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia: the Cache County Study. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2006; 2: 93-100.
31. Kalaria RN, Ballard C: Overlap between pathology of AD and vascular dementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1999; 13(suppl 3):S115-S123.
32. Ott A, Breteler MM, van Harskamp F, Claus JJ, van der Cammen TJ, Grobbee DE, Hofman A: Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: association with education - the Rotterdam study. BMJ 1995; 310: 970-973.
33. Launer LJ, Masaki K, Petrovitch H, Foley D, Havlik RJ: The association between midlife blood pressure levels and late-life cognitive function. JAMA 1995; 274: 1846-1851.
34. Launer LJ, Ross GW, Petrovitch H, Masaki K, Foley D, White LR, Havlik RJ: Midlife blood pressure and dementia: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Neurobiol Aging 2000; 21: 49-55.
35. Petrovitch H, White LR, Izmirilian G, Ross GW, Havlik RJ, Markesbery W, Nelson J, Davis DG, Hardman J, Foley DJ, Launer LJ: Midlife blood pressure and neuritic plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and brain weight at death: the HAAS - Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Neurobiol Aging 2000; 21: 57-62.
36. Korf ESC, White LR, Scheltens P, Launer LJ: Midlife blood pressure and the risk of hippocampal atrophy: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Hypertension 2004; 44: 29-34.
37. Stewart R, Xue QL, Masaki K, Petrovitch H, Ross GW, White LR, Launer LJ: Change in blood pressure and incident dementia: a 32- year prospective study. Hypertension 2009; 54: 233-240.
38. Kivipelto M, Helkala EL, Laakso MP, Hänninen T, Hallikainen M, Alhainen K, Soininen H, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A: Midlife vascular risk factors and Alzheimer's disease in later life: longitudinal, population-based study. BMJ 2001; 322: 1447-1451. (Pubitemid 32575406)
39. Kivipelto M, Ngandu T, Fratiglioni L, Viitanen M, Kåreholt I, Winblad B, Helkala EL, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Nissinen A: Obesity and vascular risk factors at midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2005; 62: 1556-1560. (Pubitemid 41434560)
40. Luchsinger JA, Reitz C, Honig LS, Tang MX, Shea S, Mayeux R: Aggregation of vascular risk factors and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2005; 65: 545-551.
41. Skoog I, Lernfelt B, Landahl S, Palmertz B, Andreasson LA, Nilsson L, Persson G, Odén A, Svanborg A: 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia. Lancet 1996; 347: 1141-1145. (Pubitemid 126512042)
42. Qiu C, Winblad B, Viitanen M, Fratiglioni L: Pulse pressure and risk of Alzheimer disease in persons aged 75 years and older: a community- based, longitudinal study. Stroke 2003; 34: 594-599.
43. Li G, Rhew IC, Shofer JB, Kukull WA, Breitner JC, Peskind E, Bowen JD, McCormick W, Teri L, Crane PK, Larson EB: Age-varying association between blood pressure and risk of dementia in those aged 65 and older: a community-based prospective cohort study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2007; 55: 1161-1167.
44. Morris MC, Scherr PA, Hebert LE, Glynn RJ, Bennett DA, Evans DA: Association of incident Alzheimer disease and blood pressure measured from 13 years before to 2 years after diagnosis in a large community study. Arch Neurol 2001; 58: 1640-1646.
45. Posner HB, Tang MX, Luchsinger J, Lantigua R, Stern Y, Mayeux R: The relationship of hypertension in the elderly to AD, vascular dementia, and cognitive function. Neurology 2002; 58: 1175-1181.
46. Bellew KM, Pigeon JG, Stang PE, Fleischman W, Gardner RM, Baker WW: Hypertension and the rate of cognitive decline in patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2004; 18: 208-213.
47. Bhargava D, Weiner MF, Hynan LS, Diaz- Arrastia R, Lipton AM: Vascular disease and risk factors, rate of progression, and survival in Alzheimer's disease. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2006; 19: 78-82.
48. Regan C, Katona C, Walker Z, Hooper J, Donovan J, Livingston G: Relationship of vascular risk to the progression of Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2006; 67: 1357-1362.
49. Mielke MM, Rosenberg PB, Tschanz J, Cook L, Corcoran C, Hayden KM, Norton M, Rabins PV, Green RC, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Breitner JCS, Munger R, Lyketsos CG: Vascular factors predict rate of progression in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2007; 69: 1850-1858.
50. Abellan van Kan G, Rolland Y, Nourhashémi F, Coley N, Andrieu S, Vellas B: Cardiovascular disease risk factors and progression of Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2009; 27: 240-246.
51. Musicco M, Palmer K, Salamone G, Lupo F, Perri R, Mosti S, Spalletta G, di Iulio F, Pettenati C, Cravello L, Caltagirone C: Predictors of progression of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease: the role of vascular and sociodemographic factors. J Neurol 2009; 256: 1288-1295.
52. Guo Z, Viitanen M, Fratiglioni L, Winblad B: Low blood pressure and dementia in elderly people: the Kungsholmen project. BMJ 1996; 312: 805-808.
53. Hanon O, Latour F, Seux ML, et al: Evolution of blood pressure in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a one-year survey of a French cohort (REAL.FR). J Nutr Health Aging 2005; 9: 106-111.
54. Morris MC, Scherr PA, Hebert LE, Bennett DA, Wilson RS, Glynn RJ, Evans DA: The cross-sectional association between blood pressure and Alzheimer's disease in a biracial community population of older persons. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000; 55:M130-M136.
55. Razay G, Williams J, King E, Smith DA, Wilcock G: Blood pressure, dementia and Alzheimer's disease: the OPTIMA longitudinal study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2009; 28: 70-74.
56. Allan LM, Ballard CG, Allen J, Murray A, Davidson AW, McKeith IG, Kenny RA: Autonomic dysfunction in dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007; 78: 671-677.
57. Iadecola C, Davisson RL: Hypertension and cerebrovascular dysfunction. Cell Metab 2008; 7: 476-484.
58. Hainsworth AH, Markus HS: Do in vivo experimental models reflect human cerebral small vessel disease? A systematic review. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2008; 28: 1877-1891.
59. Efimova IY, Efimova NY, Triss SV, Lishmanov YB: Brain perfusion and cognitive function changes in hypertensive patients. Hypertens Res 2008; 31: 673-678.
60. Kitagawa K: Cerebral blood flow measurement by PET in hypertensive subjects as a marker of cognitive decline. J Alzheimers Dis 2010; 20: 855-859.
61. Liao D, Cooper L, Cai J, Toole JF, Bryan NR, Hutchinson RG, Tyroler HA: Presence and severity of cerebral white matter lesions and hypertension, its treatment, and its control: the ARIC study. Stroke 1996; 27: 2262-2270.
62. Suter OC, Sunthorn T, Kraftsik R, Straubel J, Darekar P, Khalili K, Miklossy J: Cerebral hypoperfusion generates cortical watershed microinfarcts in Alzheimer disease. Stroke 2002; 33: 1986-1992.
63. Kalback W, Esh C, Castaño EM, Rahman A, Kokjohn T, Luehrs DC, Sue L, Cisneros R, Gerber F, Richardson C, Bohrmann B, Walker DG, Beach TG, Roher AE: Atherosclerosis, vascular amyloidosis and brain hypoperfusion in the pathogenesis of sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Neurol Res 2004; 26: 525-539.
64. Launer LJ, Petrovitch H, Ross GW, Markesbery W, White LR: AD brain pathology: vascular origins? Results from the HAAS autopsy study. Neurobiol Aging 2008; 29: 1587-1590.
65. Zhang X, Zhou K, Wang R, Cui J, Lipton SA, Liao FF, Xu H, Zhang YW: Hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α)-mediated hypoxia increases BACE1 expression and β-amyloid generation. J Biol Chem 2007; 282: 10873-10880.
66. Thomas T, McLendon C, Sutton ET, Thomas G: Β-Amyloid-induced cerebrovascular endothelial dysfunction. Ann NY Acad Sci 1997; 826: 447-451.
67. Paris D, Ait-Ghezala G, Mathura VS, Patel N, Quadros A, Laporte V, Mullan M: Anti-angiogenic activity of the mutant Dutch A Βpeptide on human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 2005; 136: 212-230.
68. Shi J, Yang SH, Stubley L, Day AL, Simpkins JW: Hypoperfusion induces overexpression of β-amyloid precursor protein mRNA in a focal ischemic rodent model. Brain Res 2000; 853: 1-4.
69. Bartolák-Suki E, Sipe JD, Fine RE, Rosene DL, Moss MB: Serum amyloid A is present in the capillaries and microinfarcts of hypertensive monkey brain: an immunohistochemical study. Amyloid 2000; 7: 111-117.
70. de la Torre JC, Mussivand T: Can disturbed brain microcirculation cause Alzheimer's disease? Neurol Res 1993; 15: 146-153.
71. de la Torre JC: Alzheimer disease as a vascular disorder: nosological evidence. Stroke 2002; 33: 1152-1162.
72. de la Torre JC: Is Alzheimer's disease a neurodegenerative or a vascular disorder? Data, dogma, and dialectics. Lancet Neurol 2004; 3: 184-190.
73. Matsushita K, Kuriyama Y, Nagatsuka K, Nakamura M, Sawada T, Omae T: Periventricular white matter lucency and cerebral blood flow autoregulation in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1994; 23: 565-568.
74. Yoshita M, Fletcher E, Harvey D, Ortega M, Martinez O, Mungas DM, Reed BR, DeCarli CS: Extent and distribution of white matter hyperintensities in normal aging, MCI, and AD. Neurology 2006; 67: 2192-2198.
75. Johnson KA, Jones K, Holman BL, Becker JA, Spiers PA, Satlin A, Albert MS: Preclinical prediction of Alzheimer's disease using SPECT. Neurology 1998; 50: 1563-1571.
76. Maalikjy Akkawi N, Borroni B, Agosti C, Pezzini A, Magoni M, Rozzini L, Prometti P, Romanelli G, Vignolo LA, Padovani A: Volume reduction in cerebral blood flow in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a sonographic study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2003; 16: 163-169.
77. Reed BR, Jagust WJ, Seab JP, Ober BA: Memory and regional cerebral blood flow in mildly symptomatic Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1989; 39: 1537-1539.
78. Ruitenberg A, den Heijer T, Bakker SL, van Swieten JC, Koudstaal PJ, Hofman A, Breteler MM: Cerebral hypoperfusion and clinical onset of dementia: the Rotterdam study. Ann Neurol 2005; 57: 789-794.
79. Iadecola C, Park L, Capone C: Threats to the mind aging, amyloid, and hypertension. Stroke 2009; 40(suppl 1):S40-S44.
80. Tian N, Moore RS, Braddy S, Rose RA, Gu JW, Hughson MD, Manning RD Jr: Interactions between oxidative stress and inflammation in salt-sensitive hypertension. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007; 293:H3388-H3395.
81. Martin C, Cameron J, McGrath B: Mechanical and circulating biomarkers in isolated clinic hypertension. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2008; 35: 402-408.
82. van Exel E, Eikelenboom P, Comijs H, Frölich M, Smit JH, Stek ML, Scheltens P, Eefsting JE, Westendorp RG: Vascular factors and markers of inflammation in offspring with a parental history of late-onset Alzheimer disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009; 66: 1263-1270.
83. Staessen JA, Richart T, Birkenhager WH: Less atherosclerosis and lower blood pressure for a meaningful life perspective with more brain. Hypertension 2007; 49: 389-400.
84. Kennelly SP, Lawlor BA, Kenny RA: Blood pressure and the risk for dementia: a doubleedged sword. Ageing Res Rev 2009; 8: 61-70.
85. Haag MD, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Breteler MM, Stricker BH: Duration of antihypertensive drug use and risk of dementia: a prospective cohort study. Neurology 2009; 72: 1727-1734.
86. Khachaturian AS, Zandi PP, Lyketsos CG, Hayden KM, Skoog I, Norton MC, Tschanz JT, Mayer LS, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Breitner JC: Antihypertensive medication use and incident Alzheimer disease: the Cache County Study. Arch Neurol 2006; 63: 686-692.
87. Forette F, Seux ML, Staessen JA, Thijs L, Babarskiene MR, Babeanu S, Bossini A, Fagard R, Gil-Extremera B, Laks T, Kobalava Z, Sarti C, Tuomilehto J, Vanhanen H, Webster J, Yodfat Y, Birkenhäger WH, Systolic Hypertension in Europe Investigators: The prevention of dementia with antihypertensive treatment: new evidence from the Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) study. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 2046-2052.
88. Staessen JA, Wang JG, Thijs L: Calcium channel blockade and cardiovascular prognosis: recent evidence from clinical outcome trials. Am J Hypertens 2002; 15: 85S-93S.
89. Yasar S, Corrada M, Brookmeyer R, Kawas C: Calcium channel blockers and risk of AD: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Neurobiol Aging 2005; 26: 157-163. (Pubitemid 39600576)
90. Barnes JM, Barnes NM, Costall B, Coughlan J, Kelly ME, Naylor RJ, Tomkins DM, Williams TJ: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition, angiotensin, and cognition. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1992; 19(suppl 6): S63-S71.
91. Rosencranz AC, Lob H, Breitenbach T, Berkels R, Roesen R: Endothelial antioxidant actions of dihydropyridines and angiotensin- converting enzyme inhibitors. Eur J Pharmacol 2006; 529: 55-62. (Pubitemid 43005285)
92. Enseleit F, Hürlimann D, Lüscher TF: Vascular protective effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and their relation to clinical events. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2001; 37(suppl 1):S21-S30. (Pubitemid 33752462)
93. Iadecola C, Davisson RL: Hypertension and cerebrovascular dysfunction. Cell Metab 2008; 7: 476-484.
94. Kehoe PG, Russ C, McIlroy S, et al: Variation in DCP1, encoding ACE, is associated with susceptibility to Alzheimer disease. Nat Genet 1999; 21: 71-72.
95. Lehmann DJ, Cortina-Borja M, Warden DR, Smith AD, Sleegers K, Prince JA, van Duijn CM, Kehoe PG: Large meta-analysis establishes the ACE insertion-deletion polymorphism as a marker of Alzheimer's disease. Am J Epidemiol 2005; 162: 305-317.
96. Zou K, Yamaguchi H, Akatsu H, Sakamoto T, Ko M, Mizoguchi K, Yu W, Yamamoto T, Kosaka K, Yanagisawa K, Michikawa M: Angiotensin- converting enzyme converts amyloid- beta protein 1-42 (Aβ1-42 ) to Aβ1-40 , and its inhibition enhances brain A βdeposition. J Neurosci 2007; 27: 8628-8635.
97. Zou K, Michikawa M: Angiotensin-converting enzyme as a potential target for treatment of Alzheimer's disease: inhibition or activation? Rev Neurosci 2008; 19: 203-212.
98. Ohrui T, Tomita N, Sato-Nakagawa T, Matsui T, Maruyama M, Niwa K, Arai H, Sasaki H: Effects of brain-penetrating ACE inhibitors on Alzheimer disease progression. Neurology 2004; 63: 1324-1325.
99. Li NC, Lee A, Whitmer RA, Kivipelto M, Lawler E, Kazis LE, Wolozin B: Use of angiotensin receptor blockers and risk of dementia in a predominantly male population: prospective cohort analysis. BMJ 2010; 340:b5465.
100. Zhao W, Wang J, Ho L, Ono K, Teplow DB, Pasinetti GM: Identification of antihypertensive drugs which inhibit amyloid-βprotein oligomerization. J Alzheimers Dis 2009; 16: 49-57.
101. Carlberg B, Samuelsson O, Lindholm LH: Atenolol in hypertension: is it a wise choice? Lancet 2004; 364: 1684-1689.
102. Hoffman LB, Schmeidler J, Lesser GT, Beeri MS, Purohit DP, Grossman HT, Haroutunian V: Less Alzheimer disease neuropathology in medicated hypertensive than nonhypertensive persons. Neurology 2009; 72: 1720-1726.