Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents

Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care

Volumn 40, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 66-99

  Rockhill, Carol ^a   Kodish, Ian ^a   DiBattisto, Caroline ^b   Macias, Michelle ^b   Varley, Chris ^a   Ryan, Sheryl ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA   (United States)

^c YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANXIOLYTIC AGENT; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR;

ADOLESCENT; ANAMNESIS; ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTICLE; CASE REPORT; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; COGNITIVE THERAPY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; FAMILY; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; MASS SCREENING; METHODOLOGY; PATIENT REFERRAL; PEDIATRICS; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PRIMARY HEALTH CARE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; RISK FACTOR;

ADOLESCENT; ANTI-ANXIETY AGENTS; ANXIETY DISORDERS; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COGNITIVE THERAPY; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; FAMILY; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MASS SCREENING; MEDICAL HISTORY TAKING; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; PEDIATRICS; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PRIMARY HEALTH CARE; REFERRAL AND CONSULTATION; RISK FACTORS; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITORS;

EID: 77954575479     PISSN: 15385442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cppeds.2010.02.002     Document Type: Review

References (191)

1. Pine D, Helfinstein S, Bar-Haim Y, Nelson E, Fox N. Challenges in developing novel treatments for childhood disorders: lessons from research on anxiety. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009;34:213-228
2. Anderson JC, Williams S, McGee R, Silva PA. DSM-III disorders in preadolescent children. Prevalence in a large sample from the general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44(1):69-76.
3. Chavira D, Stein M, Bailey K, Stein M. Comorbidity of generalized social anxiety disorder and depression in a pediatric primary care sample. J Affect Disord 2004;80: 163-171
4. Kashani JH, Orvaschel H. A community study of anxiety in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147(3): 313-318
5. McGee R, Feehan M, Williams S, Partridge F, Silva PA, Kelly J. DSM-III disorders in a large sample of adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990;29(4):611-619
6. Egger H, Angold A. Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: presentation, nosology, and epidemiology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2006;47(3/4): 313-317
7. Stein MB, Jang KL, Livesley WJ. Heritability of social anxiety-related concerns and personality characteristics: A twin study. J Nerv Ment Dis 2002;190(4):219-224
8. Craske M. Origin of Phobias and Anxiety Disorders: Why More Women than Men? Oxford, United Kingdom: Elsevier, 2003.
9. Costello EJ, Mustillo S, Erkanli A, Keeler G, Angold A. Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60(8): 837-844
10. Pine DS, Cohen P, Gurley D, Brook J, Ma Y. The risk for early-adulthood anxiety and depressive disorders in adolescents with anxiety and depressive disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55(1):56-64.
11. Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62(6):593-602. (Pubitemid 40973434)
12. Keller M, Lavori P, Wunder J, Beardslee W, Schwartz C, Roth J. Chronic course of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1992; 31:595-599
13. Egger H, Angold A. Anxiety disorders. In: Luby J, editor. Handbook of Preschool Mental Health. New York, London: Guilford Press, 2006:137-164
14. Last C, Perrin S, Hersen M, Kazdin A. A prospective study of childhood anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:1502-1510
15. Emmelkamp P, Wittchen H. Specific phobias. In: Andrews G, Charney D, Sirovatka P, Regier D, editors. Stress-Induced and Fear Circuitry Disorders: Refining the Research Agenda for DSM-V. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 2009.
16. Beesdo K, Bittner A, Pine D, Stein MB, Hofler M, Lieb R, et al. Incidence of social anxiety disorder and the consistent risk for secondary depression in the first three decades of life. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:903-912
17. Phillips K, Price L, Greenberg B, Rasmussen S. Should the DSM diagnostic groupings be changed? In: Phillips K, First M, Pincus H, editors. Advancing DSM: Dilemas in Psychiatric Diagnosis. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 2002.
18. Beesdo K, Knappe S, Pine D. Anxiety and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Developmental issues and implications for DSM-V. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2009;32: 482-524.
19. Hettema JM, Neale MC, Kendler KS. A review and metaanalysis of the genetic epidemiology of anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158(10):1568- 1578
20. Lieb R, Wittchen H, Höfler M, Feutsch M, Stein M, Merikangas K. Parental psychopathology, parenting styles, and the risk for social phobia in offspring: A prospectivelongitudinal community study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57:859-866
21. Schreier A, Wittchen H, Höfler M, Lieb R. Anxiety in mothers and their children: prospective longitudinal community study. Br J Psychiatry 2008;129:308-309
22. Hudziak J, Boomsma D. Genetic and environmental contributions to self-report obsessive-compulsive symptoms in Dutch adolescents at ages 12, 14, and 16. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008;47:1182-1188
23. Biederman J, Hirshfeld-Becker D, Rosenbaum J, Herot C, Friedman D, Snidman N, et al. Further evidence of association between behavioral inhibition and social anxiety in children. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158(10):1673-1679 (Pubitemid 32923661)
24. Caspi A, Moffitt T, Newman D, Silva P. Behavioral observations at age 3 year predict adult psychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53(11):1033-1039
25. Hayward C, Killen J, Kraemer H, Taylor C. Linking selfreported childhood behavioral inhibition to adolescent social phobia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998;37(12): 1308-1316
26. Clark L, Watson D. Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. J Abnorm Psychol 1991;100(3):316-336
27. Clark D, Steer R, Beck A. Common and specific dimensions of self-reported anxiety and depression. J Abnorm Psychol 1994;103(4):645-654
28. Wollpe J. Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1969.
29. Mowrer O. On the dual nature of learning: A re-interpretation of "conditioning" and "problem-solving". Prog Neurobiol 1947;42:3-32.
30. Keeley M, Storch E. Anxiety disorders in youth. J Pediatr Nurs 2009;24:26-40.
31. Craske MG, Pontillo DC. Cognitive biases in anxiety disorders and their effect on cognitive-behavioral treatment. Bull Menninger Clin 2001;65(1):58-77.
32. Watts S, Weems C. Associations among selective attention, memory bias, cognitive errors and symptoms of anxiety in youth. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2006;34(6):838-849
33. Roy AK, Vasa RA, Bruck M, Mogg K, Bradley BP, Sweeney M, et al. Attention bias toward threat in pediatric anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008; 47(10):1189-1196
34. Schwartz C, Wright C, Shin L, Kagan J, Rauch S. Inhibited and uninhibited infants "grown up": Adult amygdalar response to novelty. Science 2003;300:1952-1953
35. Feldman R, Granat A, Pariente C, Kanety H, Kuint J, Gilboa-Schechtman E. Maternal depression and anxiety across the postpartum year and infant social engagement, fear regulation, and stress reactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009;48:919-927
36. Elizabeth J, King N, Ollendick T, Gullone E, Tonge B, Watson S. Social anxiety disorder in children and youth: A research update on aetiological factors. Couns Psychol Q 2006;19:151-163
37. van Brakel A, Muris P, Bogels S, Thomassen C. A multifactorial model for the etiology of anxiety in non-clinical adolescents: main and interactive effects of behavioral inhibition, attachment, and parental rearing. J Child Fam Stud 2006;15:569-579
38. Muris P, Steerneman P, Merckelbach H, Meesters C. The role of parental fearfulness and modeling in children's fear. Behav Res Ther 1996;38:265-268
39. Rueter M, Scaramella L, Wallace L. First onset of depressive or anxiety disorders predicted by the longitudianl course of internalizing symptoms and parent-adolescent disagreements. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:726-732
40. Merikangas K, Avenevoli S, Dierker L, Grillon C. Vulnerability factors among children at risk for anxiety disorders. Biol Psychiatry 1999;46:1523-1535
41. Lynch M, Cicchetti D. Links between community violence and the family system: evidence from children's feelings of relatedness and perceptions of parent behavior. Fam Proc 2002;41:519-532
42. de Graaf R, Bijl RV, Smit F, Vollebergh WA, Spijker J. Risk factors for 12-month comorbidity of mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders: findings from the Netherlands mental health survey and incidence study. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159(4):620-629
43. Wittchen H, Nelson C, Lachner G. Prevalence of mental disorders and psychosocial impairments in adolescents and young adults. Psychol Med 1998;28:109-126 (Pubitemid 28043572)
44. Kessler R, Davis C, Kendler K. Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the US national comorbidity survey. Psychol Med 1997;27:1101-1119
45. Bijl R, Ravelli A, Van Zessen G. Prevalence of psychiatric disorder in the general population: Results of the Netherlands mental health survey and incidence study (NEMISIS). Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 1998;33:587-595 (Pubitemid 28528860)
46. Storr CL, Ialongo NS, Anthony JC, Breslau N. Childhood antecedents of exposure to traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164(1):119-125
47. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P. Risk factors for PTSDrelated traumatic events: A prospective analysis. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152(4):529-535
48. Shin LM, Liberzon I. The neurocircuitry of fear, stress, and anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010;35:169-191
49. Roozendaal B, McEwen BS, Chattarji S. Stress, memory and the amygdala. Nat Rev Neurosci 2009;10(6):423-433
50. Pine DS, Guyer AE, Leibenluft E. Functional magnetic resonance imaging and pediatric anxiety. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008;47(11):1217-1221
51. Monk CS, Telzer EH, Mogg K, Bradley BP, Mai X, Louro HM, et al. Amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation to masked angry faces in children and adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008;65(5):568-576
52. Krain AL, Gotimer K, Hefton S, Ernst M, Castellanos FX, Pine DS, et al. A functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of uncertainty in adolescents with anxiety disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2008;63(6):563-568
53. Guyer AE, Lau JY, McClure-Tone EB, Parrish J, Shoffrin ND, Reynolds RC, et al. Amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex function during anticipated peer evaluation in pediatric social anxiety. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008;65(11): 1303-1312
54. Pezawas L, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Drabant EM, Verchinski BA, Munoz KE, Kolachana BS, et al. 5-HTTLPR polymorphism impacts human cingulate-amygdala interactions: A genetic susceptibility mechanism for depression. Nat Neurosci 2005;8(6):828-834
55. Rauch SL, Shin LM, Wright CI. Neuroimaging studies of amygdala function in anxiety disorders. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003;985:389-410.
56. De Bellis BJ, Casey RE, Dahl RE, Birmaher B, Williamson DE, Thomas KM, et al. A pilot study of amygdala volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:51-57
57. Milham MP, Nugent AC, Drevets WC, Dickstein DP, Leinbenluft E, Ernst M, et al. Selective reduction in amygdala volume in pediatric anxiety disorders: A voxel-based morphometry investigation. Biol Psychiatry 2005;57(9):961-966
58. Jackowski AP, de Araujo CM, de Lacerda AL, Mari Jde J, Kaufman J. Neurostructural imaging findings in children with post-traumatic stress disorder: brief review. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2009;63(1):1-8.
59. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Text Revision). 4th edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2000.
60. Varley C, Varley J, Smith C. Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. In: Greydanus D, Patel D, Pratt H, editors. Behavioral Pediatrics. 2nd edition. New York, NY: Universe, Inc, 2006:618-650
61. Livingston R. Anxiety disorders. In: Lewis M, editor. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: A Comprehensive Textbook. 2nd edition. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1996:674-683
62. Slap G. Normal physiological and psychological growth in the adolescent. J Adolesc Health Care 1986;7:135-235.
63. Gross C, Hen R. The developmental origins of anxiety. Nat Rev Neuroscience 2004;5:545-552
64. Irwin C. The adolescent visit. In: Rudolph C, Rudolph A, Hostetter M, Lister G, Siegel N, editors. Rudolph's Pediatrics. 21st edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2002:234-238
65. Kagan J. Galen's Prophecy: Temperament in Human Nature. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1994.
66. Hirshfeld-Becker D, Micco J, Henin A, Bloomfield A, Biederman J, Rosenbaum J. Behavioral inhibition. Depress Anxiety 2008;25(4):357-367
67. van Ijzendoorn M, Schuengel C, Bakermans-Kranenburg M. Disorganized attachment in early childhood: meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Dev Psychopathol 1999;11(2):225-250
68. Task Force on Research Diagnostic Criteria: Infancy and Preschool. Research diagnostic criteria for infants and preschool children: the process and empirical support (www.infantinstitute. org). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003;42:1504-1512
69. Zero to Three. Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood: Revised edition (DC: 0-3R). Washington, DC: Zero to Three Press, 2005.
70. Wolraich M, Felice M, Drotar D, editors. The Classification of Child and Adolescent Mental Diagnoses in Primary Care: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Primary Care (DSMPC) Child and Adolescent Version. Elk Grove Village, IL: American: Academy of Pediatrics, 1996.
71. Wolraich M. Diagnostic and statistical manual for primary care (DSM-PC) child and adolescent version: Design, intent, and hopes for the future. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1997;18(3): 171-172
72. Chiang O. Anxiety disorders. In: Garfunkel L, Kaczorowski J, Christy C, editors. Mosby's Pediatric Clinical Advisor; Instant Diagnosis and Treatment. 2nd edition. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, Inc, 2007.
73. Neinstein L, Heischober B. Overview of drug use and abuse. In: Neinstein L, editor. Adolescent Health Care: A Practical Guide. 4th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 2002:1233-1270
74. Maheux B, Gilbert A, Haley N, Frappier J-Y. Adolescent care part 2: Communication and referral practices of family physicians caring for adolescents with mental health problems. Can Fam Physician 2006;52(11):1442.
75. Staller J. Diagnostic profiles in outpatient child psychiatry. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2006;76(1):98-102.
76. Kovacs M, Devlin B. Internalizing disorders in childhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1998;39:47-63.
77. Costello EJ, Farmer EM, Angold A, Burns BJ, Erkanli A. Psychiatric disorders among American Indian and white youth in Appalachia: the Great Smoky Mountains study. Am J Public Health 1997;87(5):827-832
78. Walkup JT, Albano AM, Piacentini J, Birmaher B, Compton SN, Sherrill JT, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy, sertraline, or a combination in childhood anxiety. N Engl J Med 2008;359:2753-2766
79. Anderson J. Epidemiological issues. In: Ollendick T, King N, Yule W, editors. International Handbook of Phobia and Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1994.
80. Pauls D, Alsobrook JP II, Goodman W, Rasmuussen S, Leckman J. A family study of obsessive compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:76-84.
81. Pauls D, Alsobrook J. The inheritance of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 1999;8: 481-496
82. Kendall P, Hedtke K, Aschenbrand S. Anxiety disorders. In: Wolfe DA, Mash EJ, editors. Behavioral and Emotional Disorders in Adolescents. Nature, Assessment and Treatment. New York, NY: Guilford Press, 2006:259-299
83. Jaffe S, editor. Adolescent Substance Abuse and Dual Disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, 1996:5.
84. Weissman M, Wolk S, Wickramaratne P, Goldstein RB, Adams P, Greenwald S, et al. Children with prepubertalonset major depressive disorder and anxiety grown up. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:794-801.
85. Duncan B, Clark MD, Oscar G, et al. Psychopathology in adolescent alcohol abuse and dependence. Alcohol Health Res World 1998;22:117-121
86. Bukstein O, Brent D, Kaminer Y. Comorbidity of substance abuse and other psychiatric disorders in adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146:1131-1141
87. Deykin E, Buka S. Prevalence and risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder among chemically dependent adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:752-757
88. Clark D, Bukstein O, Smith M, Kaczynski N. Identifying anxiety disorders in adolescents hospitalized for alcohol abuse or dependence. Psychiatr Serv 1995;46:618-620
89. Clark D, Lesnick L, Hegedus A. Traumas and other adverse life events in adolescents with alcohol abuse and dependence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36: 1744-1751
90. Babio N, Canals J, Pietrobelli A, Perez S, Arija V. A two-phase population study: Relationships between overweight, body composition, and risk of eating disorders. Nutr Hosp 2009;24:485-491
91. Halmi K. Anorexia nervosa: An increasing problem in children and adolescents. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2009;11: 100-103
92. Salbach-Andrae H, Lenz K, Simmendinger N, Klinkowski N, Lehmkuhl U, Pfeiffer E. Psychiatric comorbidities among female adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2008;39:261-272
93. Czaja J, Rief W, Hilbert A. Emotion regulation and binge eating in children. Int J Eat Disord 2009;42:356-362
94. Kashani JH, Konig P, Shepperd JA, Wilfley D, Morris DA. Psychopathology and self-concept in asthmatic children. J Pediatr Psychol 1988;13(4):509-520
95. Ortega AN, Huertas SE, Canino G, Ramirez R, Rubio-Stipec M. Childhood asthma, chronic illness, and psychiatric disorders. J Nerv Ment Dis 2002;190(5):275-281
96. Katon WJ, Richardson L, Lozano P, McCauley E. The relationship of asthma and anxiety disorders. Psychosom Med 2004;66(3):349-355
97. Rockhill CM, Russo J, McCauley E, Katon W, Richardson L, Lozano P. Agreement between parents and children regarding anxiety and depression diagnoses in children with asthma. J Nerv Ment Dis 2007;195:897-904.
98. Dantzer C, Swendsenb J, Maurice-Tisonc S, Salamonc R. Anxiety and depression in juvenile diabetes: A critical review. Clin Psychol Rev 2003;23:787-800.
99. Bunevicius R, Prange A. Psychiatric manifestations of Graves' hyperthyroidism: pathophysiology and treatment options. CNS Drugs 2006;20:897-909.
100. Dadds M, Spence S, Holland D, Barrett P, Laurens K. Prevention and early intervention for anxiety disorders: A controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 1997;65:627-635
101. Dadds M, Holland D, Laurens K, Mullins M, Barrett P, Spence S. Early intervention and prevention of anxiety disorders in children: Results at 2-year follow-up. J Consult Clin Psychol 1999;67:145-150
102. Flessner C, Woods D, Franlkin M, Keuthen N, Piacentini J. Cross-sectional study of women with trichotillomania: A preliminary examination of pulling styles, severity, phenomenology, and functional impact. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2009;40(1):153-167
103. Duke D, Bodzin D, Tavares P, Geffken G, Storch E. The phenomenology of hairpulling in a community sample. J Anxiety Disord 2009;23(8):1118-1125
104. Lewin A, Piacentini J, Flessner C, Woods DW, Franklin ME, Keuthen MJ, et al. Depression, anxiety, and functional impairment in children with trichotillomania. Depress Anxiety 2009;26(6):521-527
105. Franklin M, Flessner C, Woods D, Keuthen NJ, Piacentini JC, Moore P, et al. The child and adolescent trichotillomania impact project: Descriptive psychopathology, comorbidity, functional impairment, and treatment utilization. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2008;29(6):493-500.
106. Tolin D, Franklin M, Diefenbach G, Anderson E, Meunier S. Pediatric trichotillomania: Descriptive psychopathology and an open trial of cognitive behavioral therapy. Cogn Behav Ther 2007;36:129-144
107. Stein D, Bouwer C, Maud C. Use of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram in treatment of trichotillomania. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997;247:234-236
108. Christenson G, MacKenzie T, Mitchell J, Callies A. A placebocontrolled, double-blind crossover study of fluoxetine in trichotillomania. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:1566-1571
109. Welsh K, McDougle C. Pharmacological strategies for trichotillomania. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2005;6:975-984
110. Viana AG, Beidel DC, Rabian B. Selective mutism: A review and integration of the last 15 years. Clin Psychol Rev 2009;29(1):57-67.
111. Bartak L, Rutter M. Differences between mentally retarded and normally intelligent autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord 1976;6(2):109-120
112. Simonoff E, Pickles A, Charman T, Chandler S, Loucas T, Baird G. Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008;47(8):921-929
113. Kolevzon A, Mathewson K, Hollander E. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in autism: A review of efficacy and tolerability. J Clin Psychiatry 2006;67(3):407-414
114. King BH, Hollander E, Sikich L, McCracken JT, Scahill L, Bregman JD, et al. Lack of efficacy of citalopram in children with autism spectrum disorders and high levels of repetitive behavior: Citalopram ineffective in children with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66(6):583-590
115. Field B. Two drugs test ineffective in treating autism. Autism Examiner 2009. Available at: http://www.examiner.com/x-2195-Autism-Examinery2009m6d3-Two- drugs-test-ineffectivein- treating-autism. Accessed December 3, 2010.
116. Summary of the practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children, adolescents, and adults with autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999;38(12):1611-1616
117. Connolly SD, Bernstein GA. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007;46(2):267-283
118. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009;46(2):267-283
119. Southam-Gerow M, Kendall P, Weersing V. Examining outcome variability: Correlates of treatment response in a child and adolescent anxiety clinic. J Clin Child Psychol 2001;30(3):422-436
120. Barrett P, Dadds M, Rapee R. Family treatment of childhood anxiety: A controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 1996;64: 333-342
121. James A, Soler A, Weatherall R. Cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005;(4):CD004690.
122. Wolpe J. Basic principles and practices of behavior therapy of neuroses. Am J Psychiatry 1969;125(9):1242-1247
123. Butler G, Fennell M, Hackmann A. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: Mastering Clinical Challenges. New York, NY: Guilford Press, 2008.
124. Kronenberger W, Meyer R. The Child Clinician's Handbook. 2nd edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 2001.
125. McClellan JM, Werry JS. Evidence-based treatments in child and adolescent psychiatry: An inventory. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003;42(12):1388-1400
126. Barrett PM. Evaluation of cognitive-behavioral group treatments for childhood anxiety disorders. J Clin Child Psychol 1998;27(4):459-468
127. Kendall PC. Treating anxiety disorders in children: Results of a randomized clinical trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 1994; 62(1):100-110
128. Kendall PC, Flannery-Schroeder E, Panichelli-Mindel SM, Southam-Gerow M, Henin A, Warman M. Therapy for youths with anxiety disorders: A second randomized clinical trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 1997;65(3):366-380
129. Manassis K, Mendlowitz SL, Scapillato D, Avery D, Fiksenbaum L, Freire M, et al. Group and individual cognitive-behavioral therapy for childhood anxiety disorders: A randomized trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002;41(12):1423-1430
130. Wood JJ, Piacentini JC, Southam-Gerow M, Chu BC, Sigman M. Family cognitive behavioral therapy for child anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006; 45(3):314-321
131. Cognitive-behavior therapy, sertraline, and their combination for children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: the Pediatric OCD Treatment Study (POTS) randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004;292(16):1969-1976.
132. Barrett P, Healy-Farrell L, March JS. Cognitive-behavioral family treatment of childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder: A controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004; 43(1):46-62.
133. Storch EA, Geffken GR, Merlo LJ, Mann G, Duke D, Munson M, et al. Family-based cognitive-behavioral therapy for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: Comparison of intensive and weekly approaches. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007;46(4):469-478
134. King NJ, Tonge BJ, Mullen P, Myerson N, Heyne D, Rollings S, et al. Treating sexually abused children with posttraumatic stress symptoms: A randomized clinical trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000;39(11):1347-1355
135. Nevo GA, Manassis K. Outcomes for treated anxious children: A critical review of long-term-follow-up studies. Depress Anxiety 2009;26(7):650-660
136. Lieberman A, Van Horn P. Giving voice to the unsayable: Repairing the effects of trauma in infancy and early childhood. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2009;18:707-720
137. Liebowitz MR, Turner SM, Piacentini J, Beidel DC, Clarvit SR, Davies SO, et al. Fluoxetine in children and adolescents with OCD: A placebo-controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002;41(12):1431-1438
138. Riddle MA, Scahill L, King RA, Hardin MT, Anderson GM, Ort SI, et al. Double-blind, crossover trial of fluoxetine and placebo in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1992;31(6):1062-1069
139. Riddle MA, Reeve EA, Yaryura-Tobias JA, Yang HM, Claghorn JM, Gaffney G, et al. Fluvoxamine for children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, controlled, multicenter trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001;40(2):222-229
140. March JS, Biederman J, Wolkow R, Safferman A, Mardekian J, Cook EH, et al. Sertraline in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A multicenter randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;280(20):1752-1756
141. Geller DA, Wagner KD, Emslie G, Murphy T, Carpenter DJ, Wetherhold E, et al. Paroxetine treatment in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004;43(11):1387-1396 (Pubitemid 39411039)
142. Mukaddes NM, Abali O, Kaynak N. Citalopram treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A preliminary report. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2003;57(4):405-408
143. Thomsen PH. Child and adolescent obsessive-compulsive disorder treated with citalopram: findings from an open trial of 23 cases. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 1997;7(3): 157-166
144. Alaghband-Rad J, Hakimshooshtary M. A randomized controlled clinical trial of citalopram versus fluoxetine in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009;18(3):131-135
145. Wagner KD, Berard R, Stein MB, Wetherhold E, Carpenter DJ, Perera P, et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of paroxetine in children and adolescents with social anxiety disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004;61(11):1153-1162
146. Black B, Uhde TW. Treatment of elective mutism with fluoxetine: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1994;33(7):1000-1006
147. Walkup J, Labellarte M, Riddle MA, Pine DS, Greenhill L, Fairbanks J, et al. Treatment of pediatric anxiety disorders: An open-label extension of the research units on pediatric psychopharmacology anxiety study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2002;12(3):175-188
148. Reinblatt SP, DosReis S, Walkup JT, Riddle MA. Activation adverse events induced by the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluvoxamine in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2009;19(2):119-126
149. Birmaher B, Axelson DA, Monk K, Kalas C, Clark DB, Ehmann M, et al. Fluoxetine for the treatment of childhood anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003;42(4):415-423
150. Rynn MA, Siqueland L, Rickels K. Placebo-controlled trial of sertraline in the treatment of children with generalized anxiety disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158(12):2008-2014
151. Kendall P, Hedtke K. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxious children. In: Therapist Manual. 3rd edition. Ardmore, PA: Workbook Publishing, 2006.
152. March J, Silva S, Petrycki S, Curry J, Wells K, Fairbank J, et al. Fluoxetine, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and their combination for adolescents with depression: Treatment for Adolescents with Depression Study (TADS) randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004;292(7):807-820 (Pubitemid 39079667)
153. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The MTA Cooperative Group. Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56(12):1073-86.
154. Food and Drug Administration. New warnings proposed for antidepressants. 2007. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/ ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm048950. htm. Accessed December 12, 2009.
155. Rynn MA, Riddle MA, Yeung PP, Kunz NR. Efficacy and safety of extended-release venlafaxine in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder in children and adolescents: two placebo-controlled trials. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164(2): 290-300.
156. March JS, Entusah AR, Rynn M, Albano AM, Tourian KA. A randomized controlled trial of venlafaxine ER versus placebo in pediatric social anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2007;62(10):1149-1154
157. Gittelman-Klein R, Klein DF. School phobia: Controlled imipramine treatment. Calif Med 1971;115(3):42.
158. Klein RG, Koplewicz HS, Kanner A. Imipramine treatment of children with separation anxiety disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1992;31(1):21-28
159. Bernstein GA, Borchardt CM, Perwien AR, Crosby RD, Krushner MG, Thuras PD, et al. Imipramine plus cognitivebehavioral therapy in the treatment of school refusal. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000;39(3):276-283
160. Berney T, Kolvin I, Bhate SR, Garside RF, Jeans J, Kay B, et al. School phobia: A therapeutic trial with clomipramine and short-term outcome. Br J Psychiatry 1981;138:110-118
161. Flament MF, Rapoport JL, Kilts C. A controlled trial of clomipramine in childhood obsessive compulsive disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 1985;21(1):150-152
162. Bernstein GA, Garfinkel BD, Borchardt CM. Comparative studies of pharmacotherapy for school refusal. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990;29(5):773-781
163. Graae F, Milner J, Rizzotto L, Klein RG. Clonazepam in childhood anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1994;33(3):372-376
164. Simeon JG, Ferguson HB, Knott V, Roberts N, Gauthier B, Dubois C, et al. Clinical, cognitive, and neurophysiological effects of alprazolam in children and adolescents with overanxious and avoidant disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1992;31(1):29-33.
165. Longo L, Johnson B. Addiction: part I. Benzodiazepines- side effects, abuse risk and alternatives. Am Fam Physician 2000;61:2121-2128
166. Ipser JC, Stein DJ, Hawkridge S, Hoppe L. Pharmacotherapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;(3):CD005170.
167. Fanton J, Gleason M. Psychopharmacology and preschoolers: A critical review of current conditions. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2009;18(3):753-771
168. Wright H, Cuccaro M, Leonhardt T, Kendall D, Anderson J. Case study: fluoxetine in the multimodal treatment of a preschool child with selective mutism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995;34:857-862
169. Avci A, Diler R, Taman L. Fluoxetine treatment in a 2.5 year old girl. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998;37: 901-902
170. Harmon R, Riggs P. Clonidine for posttraumatic stress disorder in preschool children. J Natl Med Assoc 1999;91(8): 475-477
171. US Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Executive Summary. Rockville, MD: US: Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, National Institutes of Health, 1999.
172. Simpson GA, Cohen RA, Pastor PN, Reuben CA. US children 4-17 Years of Age Who Received Treatment for Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties: Preliminary
173. Koppelman J. The Provider System for Children's Mental Health: Workforce Capacity and Effective Treatment. Washington, DC: George Washington University, 2004.
174. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Committee on Health Care Access and Economics Task Force on Mental Health. Improving mental health services in primary Care: Reducing administrative and financial barriers to access and collaboration. Pediatrics 2009;123(4):1248-1251
175. Squires J, Bricker D, Twombly E. Ages & Stages Questionnaires: Social-Emotional (ASQ:SE). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Co, 2001.
176. Jellinek M, Murphy J, Robinson J, Feins A, Lamb S, Fenton T. Pediatric symptom checklist (PSC): screening school-age children for psychosocial dysfunction. J Pediatr 1988;112(2):201-209
177. Child Heath and Development Interactive System (CHADIS). Total Child Health, Inc, 2003-2009. Available at: http://www.chadis.com/clinicians/ assessment.html. Accessed March 12, 2010.
178. Achenbach T, Rescorla L. Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 1 1/2-5 (CBCL/1.5-5). Burlington, NC: University of Vermont, 2000.
179. Reynolds CR, Kamphaus RW. Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC-2). 2nd edition. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance, 1992.
180. Sprafkin J, Gadow K. Early Childhood Inventory 4 (ECI-4). Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus, 1997.
181. Briggs-Gowan MJ, Carter AS, Irwin JR, Wachtel K, Cicchetti DV. The brief infant-toddler social and emotional assessment: screening for social-emotional problems and delays in competence. J Pediatr Psychol 2004;29:143-155
182. Carter A, Briggs-Gowan MJ. Infant toddler social emotional assessment (ITSEA). New Haven, CT: Yale University, 2001.
183. Spence SH, Rapee RM, McDonald C, Ingram M. The structure of anxiety symptoms among preschoolers. Behav Res Ther 2001;39:1293-1316
184. Warren S, Ollendick T, Simmens S. Reliability and validity of the fear survey schedule for infants-preschoolers (FSSIP). Depress Anxiety 2007;25(12):E205-7.
185. Warren S. The Infant-Preschool Scale for Inhibited Behaviors. Washington, DC: George Washington University, 2001.
186. March J. Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC). San Antonio, TX: Pearson Education, Inc, 1997
187. Ablow J, Measelle J. The Berkeley Puppet Interview (BPI): Interviewing and Coding System Manuals. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Department of Psychology, 1993.
188. Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health and Task Force on Mental Health. Policy statement- the future of pediatrics: mental health competencies for pediatric primary Care. Pediatrics 2009;124:410-421
189. Hagan J, Shaw J, Duncan P. Bright Futures; Guidelines for Health Supervision of Infants, Children and Adolescents. 3rd edition. Elk Grove, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2008.
190. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. When to seek referral or consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist. Available at: http://www.aacap. org/cs/root/physicians and allied professionals/when to seek referral. Accessed December 8, 2009.
191. Homer C, Klatka K, Romm D, Kuhlthau K, Bloom S, Newacheck P, et al. A review of the evidence for the medical home for children with special health care needs. Pediatrics 2008;123(2):e922-37.