Introduction. Displacing Zimbabwe: Crisis and construction in Southern Africa

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 263-283

  Hammar, Amanda ^a,b   McGregor, JoAnn ^c   Landau, Loren ^d  

^a NORDIC AFRICA INSTITUTE   (Sweden)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

^c UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CRISIS MANAGEMENT; FORCED MIGRATION; POPULATION MIGRATION;

ZIMBABWE;

EID: 77954165343     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: 14653893     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057070.2010.485779     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. The size of the displaced population is disputed and uncertain. Figures for those who have left Zimbabwe since 2000 range up to 3 million, although a recent study gives a more conservative estimate of 1.5-2 million (T. Polzer, 'Regularising Zimbabwean Migration to SA', Migration Policy Brief, Consortium for Refugees and Migrants and University of Witwatersrand Forced Migration Studies Programme, 2009).
2. While fairly substantial Zimbabwean populations exist in Britain and elsewhere, the majority are in the southern Africa region, particularly in South Africa, for which a common estimate has been 2 million for some time. Yet many of those crossing regional boundaries circulate back and forth and the ongoing instability makes it difficult for people to plan where they are going to be in the future. Estimates of those displaced within Zimbabwe are discussed in some of the articles in this volume and below.
3. M. Kiwanuka, Zimbabwean Humanitarian Migration into Southern Africa: Inadequate Regional Responses (Johannesburg, Forced Migration Studies Programme, 2009).
4. See also L. Landau, 'Transplants and Transients: Idioms of Belonging and Dislocation in Inner-City Johannesburg', African Studies Review, 49, 2 (2006), pp. 125-45.
5. F. Nyamnjoh, Insiders and Outsiders. Citizenship and Xenophobia in Contemporary Southern Africa (London, Zed Press, and Dakar, CODESRIA, 2006).
6. For a discussion of the notion of 'political economies of displacement', see A. Hammar and G. Rodgers, 'Introduction: Notes on Political Economies of Displacement in Southern Africa', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 26, 4 (2008), pp. 355-70.
7. The broader programme, entitled Political Economies of Displacement in Southern Africa, and the specific project - Political Economies of Displacement in Post-2000 Zimbabwe - were initiated and co-ordinated by Amanda Hammar at the Nordic Africa Institute from March 2006 to January 2010.
8. See Centre for Development and Enterprise, Migration from Zimbabwe: Numbers, Needs and Policy Responses (Johannesburg, Centre for Development and Enterprise, 2008).
9. IRIN News, 'South Africa: More Zimbabwean Migrants Expected in Musina' (30 April 2009).
10. Consortium for Refugees and Migrants in South Africa (CORMSA), Protecting Refugees, Asylum Seekers and Immigrants in South Africa (Johannesburg, CORMSA, 2009).
11. L.B. Landau and J.P. Misago, 'Who to Blame and What's to Gain: Reflections on Space, State, and Violence in Kenya and South Africa', Afrika Spectrum, 44, 1 (2009), pp. 99-110.
12. See J.P. Misago, L.B. Landau, and T. Monson, 'Towards Tolerance, Law, and Dignity: Addressing Violence against Foreign Nationals in South Africa', Report for the International Organisation of Migration (February 2009) (Pretoria, International Organisation of Migration, 2009).
13. P. Dineo Gqola, 'Brutal Inheritances: Echoes, Negrophobia and Masculinist Violence', in S. Hassim, T. Kupe and E. Worby (eds), Go Home or Die Here: Violence, Xenophobia and the Reinvention of Difference in South Africa (Johannesburg, Wits University Press, 2008).
14. For a range of accounts see Hassim et al., Go Home or Die Here.
15. O. Bakewell, 'In Search of the Diasporas within Africa', African Diaspora, 1, 1 (2008), pp. 5-27.
16. J. McGregor, 'Zimbabwe's New Diaspora', in J. McGregor and R. Primorac (eds), Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival (Oxford, Berghahn, 2010).
17. For a discussion of the implications of this, see McGregor, 'The Making of Zimbabwe's New Diaspora'.
18. K.B. Axel, 'The Context of Diaspora', Cultural Anthropology, 29, 1 (2004), pp. 26-60.
19. S. Turner 'The Waxing and Waning of the Political Field in Burundi and its Diaspora', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31, 4 (2008), pp. 742-65.
20. N. Kleist 'Mobilising "the Diaspora": Somali Transnational Political Engagement', Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34, 2 (2008), pp. 307-23.
21. McGregor, 'The Making of Zimbabwe's New Diaspora'
22. Bakewell, 'In Search of the Diaspora within Africa'.
23. McGregor, 'The Making of Zimbabwe's New Diaspora'.
24. Bakewell 'In Search of the Diaspora within Africa'.
25. S. Bracking and L. Sachikonye, 'Remittances, Poverty Reduction and the Informalisation of Household Wellbeing in Zimbabwe', Conference Paper, Stellenbosch, 27-28 March 2007.
26. See also A. Bloch, The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora: A Survey of Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa (Geneva, IOM, 2005)
27. A. Bloch, 'Zimbabweans in Britain: Transnational Activities and Capabilities', Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34, 2 (2008), pp. 287-305.
28. Solidarity Peace Trust (SPT), Gone To Egoli: Economic Survival Strategies in Matabeleland - A Preliminary Study (Port Shepstone, SPT, June 2009).
29. For a discussion in relation to the category 'refugee' see L. Mallki, 'Refugees and Exile: From "Refugee Studies" to the National Order of Things', Annual Review of Anthropology, 24 (1995), pp. 495-523.
30. See A. Hammar, 'In the Name of Sovereignty: Displacement and State-making in Post-independence Zimbabwe', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 26, 4 (2008), pp. 417-34.
31. Mallki, 'Refugees and Exile', and many of the conference keynotes cited below.
32. F. Stepputat, 'Studying Displacement: Reflections on States, Sovereignty and Ethnographies of Im/Mobility', Keynote Address, Conference on 'Political Economies of Displacement in Post 2000 Zimbabwe', Johannesburg, 9-11 June 2008.
33. Stepputat, 'Studying Displacement'.
34. A. Mbembe, 'Borders, Walls and the Right to Move', Keynote Address, Conference on 'Political Economies of Displacement in Post-2000 Zimbabwe', Johannesburg, 9-11 June 2008.
35. J. Guyer, 'Displacement, Conversions and the Struggle for Value', Keynote Address, Conference on 'Political Economies of Displacement in Post-2000 Zimbabwe', Johannesburg, 9-11 June 2008.
36. See also J. Guyer, L. Denzer and A. Agbaje (eds), Money Struggles and City Life: Devaluation in Abadan and Other Urban Centres in Southern Nigeria 1986-1996 (Santa Barbara, CA, Greenwood, 2002).
37. J. Ferguson, Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Life on the Zambian Copperbelt (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1999).
38. B. Raftopoulos, 'Reshaping Politics Through Displacement', Keynote Address, Conference on 'Political Economies of Displacement in Post-2000 Zimbabwe', Johannesburg, 9-11 June 2008.
39. M. Larmer, 'The Zimbabwe Arms Shipment Campaign', Review of African Political Economy, 35, 117 (2008), pp. 486-93.
40. See D. Potts, 'Displacement and Livelihoods: the Longer Term Impacts of Operation Murambatsvina', in M. Vambe (ed.), The Hidden Dimensions of Operation Murambatsvina in Zimbabwe (Harare, Weaver Press; Pretoria, Africa Institute of South Africa, 2008), pp. 53-64.
41. For a fictional representation, see Shimmer Chinodya's short story, 'Queues', in I. Staunton (ed.), Writing Still: New Stories from Zimbabwe (Harare, Weaver Press, 2003), pp. 43-61.
42. The figures derive from A. Tibaijuka, Report of the Fact-Finding Mission to Assess the Scope and Impact of Operation Murambatsvina by the UN Special Envoy on Human Settlements Issues in Zimbabwe (New York, UNHCR Habitat, 2005).
43. For an entrée to the literature on Operation Murambatsvina, see Vambe (ed.), The Hidden Dimensions of Operation Murambatsvina.
44. A. Mbembe, 'Provisional Notes on the Postcolony', Africa, 62, 1 (1992), pp. 3-37.
45. For a comparative reference, see, for example, H. Katouzian, 'Arbitrary Rule: A Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran', British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 24, 1 (1997), pp. 49-73.
46. For a broad discussion of adjustment across Africa, see G. Mohan, E. Brown and T. Zack-Williams, Structural Adjustment: Theory, Practice and Impacts (London, Routledge, 2000).
47. On authoritarian responses to crisis, see Mbembe, 'Provisional Notes on the Postcolony'.
48. See P. Gibbon (ed.), Structural Adjustment and the Working Poor of Zimbabwe (Uppsala, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 1995).
49. See A. Mlambo, 'Historical Antecedents to Operation Murambatsvina', in Vambe (ed.), The Hidden Dimensions of Operation Murambatsvina, pp. 9-24.
50. A.Y. Kamete, 'Home Industries and the Formal City in Harare, Zimbabwe', in K. Tranberg Hansen and M. Vaa (eds), Reconsidering Informality: Perspectives from Urban Africa (Uppsala, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 2004), pp. 120-37.
51. H. Sapire and J. Beall, 'Introduction: Urban Change and Urban Studies in Southern Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 21, 1 (1995), pp. 3-17.
52. See for example A. Schlyter, Multi-Habitation. Urban Housing and Everyday Life in Chitungwiza, Zimbabwe, Research Report No. 123 (Uppsala, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 2003).
53. B. Raftopoulos and T. Yoshikuni (eds), Sites of Struggle: Essays in Zimbabwe's Urban History (Harare, Weaver Press, 1999).
54. Also, P. Bonner, 'African Urbanisation on the Rand between the 1930s and 1960s: its Social Character and Political Consequences', Journal of Southern African Studies, 21, 1 (1995), pp. 115-29.
55. D. Posel, The Making of Apartheid 1948-1961: Conflict and Compromise (Oxford, Clarendon Paperbacks, 1997 [1991]).
56. T. Yoshikuni, 'Notes on the Influence of Town Country Relations on African Urban History Before 1957: the Case of Salisbury and Bulawayo', in Raftopoulos and Yoshikuni (eds), Sites of Struggle.
57. Landau, 'Transplants and Transients'.
58. See, for example, A.Y. Kamete, 'Restrictive Control of Urban High-Density Housing in Zimbabwe: Deregulation and Challenges and Implications for Urban Design', Housing, Theory and Society, 3, 16 (1999), pp. 136-51.
59. A. Hammar, 'In the Name of Sovereignty'; and L. Landau and T. Monson, 'Displacement, Estrangement and Sovereignty: Reconfiguring State Power in Urban South Africa', Government and Opposition, 43, 2 (2008), pp. 315-36.
60. See, for example, D. Hoffman, 'The City as Barracks: Freetown, Monrovia and the Organization of Violence in Postcolonial African Cities', Cultural Anthropology, 22, 3 (2005), pp. 400-28.
61. C. Ake, 'Notes for a Political Economy of Employment in Africa', African Journal of Political Economy, 1, 2 (1987), pp. 96-118.
62. A. Harris, 'Discourses of Dirt and Disease in Operation Murambatsvina', in Vambe, Hidden Dimensions of Operation Murambatsvina, pp. 40-50.
63. See also Kamete's discussion of how Harare youth displaced by Operation Murambatsvina 'duped the system': A. Kamete, 'Not Exactly the Phoenix - But Rising all the Same: Recovery and Resistance among Displaced Youth in Post-Murambatsvina Harare', Paper presented at the ECAS-AEGIS Conference, Leiden, 11-14 July 2007.
64. For a fictional representation of adaptation and masking in this context, see V. Tagwira, The Uncertainty of Hope (Harare, Weaver Press, 2006).
65. Our thanks to Ian Scoones for useful insights and information relevant to this section.
66. Problems with accurate numbers are widespread, both in terms of sources and timing of assessments. One can claim with some certainty that close to 4,300 of the 4,500 commercial farmers have been evicted, though how many have gone where is unclear. By contrast, estimates of the number of displaced farmworkers (permanent and temporary, displaced off farms or in situ) vary dramatically and are highly contentious.
67. Figures for total numbers displaced range from a low of 50,000 permanent workers (see Moyo, 'The Land and Agrarian Question in Zimbabwe', unpublished paper, 25 November 2004), to 150,000 reported in the Utete Report, an internal government review produced in 2003, to the high-end figure of 350,000 as given by GAPWUZ.
68. see GAPWUZ, If Something is Wrong... The Invisible Suffering of Commercial Farm Workers and their Families Due to "Land Reform" (Harare, GAPWUZ, 2009.
69. Between 25,000 and 33,000 farmworkers are said to have been displaced in situ. The figure for farmworkers who were resettled on their own plots ranges from 2 to 10 per cent (Scoones confirms that for Masvingo the figure was 7 per cent), however such percentages must in turn already assume total numbers. At least most sources agree that the total size of the farmworker population prior to 2000 - assuming an average household size of six - was around 2 million.
70. See the special issue of the bulletin of ACAS (Association of Concerned Africa Scholars), Bulletin No. 8, March 2009, accessible at: www.concernedafricascholars.org/bulletin/82/
71. See D. James, Gaining Ground: 'Rights' and 'Property' in South African Land Reform (Abingdon, Routledge, 2006) for a discussion of how the SA Landless Peoples' Movement has used events in Zimbabwe to its own ends.
72. See 'Namibia: Walking in Mugabe's Footsteps',3 March 2004, available from www.allafrica.com/stories/200403030155.html [retrieved 25 February 2010].
73. P. Matondi, 'Evolving Land Rights and the "Futures" of New Farmers in Mazowe and Mangwe Districts in Zimbabwe', (paper presented at Conference on 'Political Economies of Displacement in Post-2000 Zimbabwe', Johannesburg, 9-11 June 2008).
74. M. Rukuni et al., 'Policy Options for Optimisation of the Use of Land for Agricultural Productivity and Production in Zimbabwe', report submitted to the Agrarian Sector Technical Review Group (ASTRG) (Harare, World Bank, November 2009), p. 83.
75. For an overview see, The Zimbabwe Institute, 'Understanding the Impact of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme', unpublished report, Cape Town, The Zimbabwe Institute, 2007.
76. These include studies by Harare-based research institutions such as the Centre of Rural Development, Ruzivo Trust and the African Institute for Agrarian Studies (AIAS), as well as collaborations between Zimbabwean researchers and the Institute of Development Studies in the UK, and the Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS) in South Africa,
77. I. Scoones, 'A New Start for Zimbabwe?', published 15 September 2008 on Livelihoods After Land Reform (LALR) website, www.lalr.org.za/news/a-new-start-for-zimbabwe-by-ian-scoones
78. See J. McGregor, 'The Politics of Disruption: War Veterans and the Local State in Zimbabwe', African Affairs, 101 (2002), pp. 9-37.
79. and A. Hammar, 'The Making and Unma(s)king of Local Government in Zimbabwe', in A. Hammar, B. Raftopoulos and S. Jensen, Zimbabwe's Unfinished Business: Rethinking Land, State and Nation in the Context of Crisis (Harare, Weaver Press, 2003), pp. 119-54.
80. On political violence in rural areas see various reports by Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, Solidarity Peace Trust and others. On internal displacement see IDMC, The Many Faces of Displacement: IDPs in Zimbabwe (Harare, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, 2008).
81. On the links between displacement and rural impoverishment in particular, see Solidarity Peace Trust, Gone to Egoli.
82. Scoones, 'A New Start'. See also Moyo, 'The Land and Agrarian Question', and C. Zawe, Reforms in Turbulent Times. A Study in the Theory and Practice of Three Irrigation Management Policy Reform Models in Mashonaland, Zimbabwe, unpublished Ph.D. Thesis (Wageningen, Wageningen University, 2006)
83. B. Z. Mavedzenge, J. Mahenehene, F. Murimbarimba, I. Scoones, and W. Wolmer, 'The Dynamics of Real Markets: Cattle in Southern Zimbabwe Following Land Reform', Development and Change, 39, 4 (2008), pp.613-39.
84. On the prevalence of leasing of 'new' commercial farms to white farmers, and the backlash from hardliners within ZANU(PF), see 'Chombo, Shamu leasing farms - Mliswa', Zimbabwe Independent, 14 Feb 2010, accessed at www.zwnews.com/print.cfm?ArticleID = 22089, 14 February 2010.
85. See Zawe, 'Reforms in Turbulent Times'.
86. Zawe, ibid., p. 291.
87. Zawe, ibid., p. 290.
88. Matondi, 'Evolving Land Rights'.
89. In addition to other work cited here, see also I. Scoones, N. Marongwe, B. Mavedzenge, J. Murimbarimba, C. Sukume, Zimbabwe's Land Reform: Myths and Realities (Oxford, James Currey, forthcoming).
90. While this argument was one justification for earlier land reform programmes, it was not the main argument for post-2000 'reforms', which were justified as reversing colonial dispossession.
91. Some of these activities had been undertaken by both permanent and part-time farmworkers even before the FTLRP, but they intensified across the board after 2000.
92. See for example J. Manjengwa, 'Environmental Degradation and Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe', paper presented at conference on 'Political Economies of Displacement in Post-2000 Zimbabwe', Nordic Africa Institute and Force Migration Studies Programme, Johannesburg, June 2008.
93. Moyo and Chambati make even stronger claims that land reform empowered workers. See S. Moyo and M. Chambati, Review of the Agricultural Sector following the Implementation of Land Reform: Impacts on Farm Workers and Farm Labour Processes (Harare, EU Technical Paper No. 7, 2004).
94. Findings in GAPWUZ, 'If Something is Wrong', counter this claim. See also L. Sachikonye, The Situation of Commercial Farm Workers after Land Reform in Zimbabwe (Harare, Farmer Community Trust of Zimbabwe (FCTZ), 2003).
95. On 'domestic government', see B. Rutherford, Working on the Margins: Black Workers, White Farmers in Postcolonial Zimbabwe (London, Zed Press and Harare, Weaver Press, 2001).
96. The key sources are acknowledged in Bolt, this issue.
97. See also N. Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans in Post War Zimbabwe: Symbolic and Violent Politics 1980-1987 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003).
98. On the dismantling and de-professionalisation specifically of local government, see J. McGregor 'The Politics of Disruption' and A. Hammar 'The Making and Unma(s)king of Local Government'.
99. On implications for academia, see M. Mushonga and M. Nyakudya, 'The Academic "Brain Drain" and the "Walking Dead" in Zimbabwe' (paper presented at conference on 'Political Economies of Displacement in Post-2000 Zimbabwe', Nordic Africa Institute and Force Migration Studies Programme, Johannesburg, June 2008).
100. See Government of Zimbabwe, Diaspora Discussion Document Series, No. 2 (2009), 'Engaging Zimbabwe Diasporas: A Discussion Paper on Enhancing the Role of Diaspora in Reconstruction Programs in Zimbabwe' (GoZ, Prime Minister's Office, 2009).
101. J. Roitman 'Productivity in the Margins: the Reconstitution of State Power in the Chad Basin', in D. Poole and V. Das (eds), Anthropology at the Margins of the State (Santa Fe, School of American Research Press, 2004), pp. 191-224.
102. See also J. Roitman, 'The Ethics of Illegality in the Chad Basin', in J. Comaroff and J. Comaroff (eds), Law and Disorder in the Postcolony (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2006).
103. Roitman, 'Productivity in the Margins'.
104. Human Rights Watch, Diamonds in the Rough: Human Rights Abuses in the Marange Diamond Fields of Zimbabwe (New York, Human Rights Watch, 2009).
105. Raftopoulos, 'Reshaping Politics Through Displacement'
106. On the Zambia border, see J. McGregor, 'Patrolling Kariba's Waters: State Authority, Fishing and the Border Economy', Journal of Southern African Studies, 34, 4 (2008), pp. 861-80.
107. On the Lesotho/SA border, see D. Coplan, 'A River Runs Through It: The Meaning of the Lesotho-Free State Border', African Affairs, 100, 398 (2001), pp. 81-116.
108. On 'border boomtowns' see G. Dobler, 'Oshikango: The Dynamics of Growth and Regulation in a Namibian Boom Town', Journal of Southern African Studies, 35, 1 (2009), pp. 115-31,
109. and W. Zeller, 'Danger and Opportunity in Katima Mulilo: A Namibian Border Boom Town at Transnational Crossroads', Journal of Southern African Studies, 35, 1 (2009), pp. 133-54.
110. P. Geschiere and S. Jackson, 'Autochthony and the Crisis of Citizenship: Democratization, Decentralization, and the Politics of Belonging', African Studies Review, 49, 2 (2006), pp. 1-7.
111. also Z. Bauman, Society Under Siege (Cambridge, Polity, 2007).
112. L. Landau, 'Loving the Alien? Citizenship, Law, and the Future in South Africa's Demonic Society', African Affairs (forthcoming April 2010).
113. J. Milner and G. Loescher, Protracted Refugee Situations: Domestic and International Security Implications (Abingdon, Routledge, 2005).
114. This shifted temporarily in the aftermath of the xenophobic violence in South Africa in May 2008, when some camps were established, whose visibility and proximity to 'ordinary' neighbourhoods created local tensions.
115. J.-F Bayart, S. Ellis and B. Hibou, The Criminalization of the State in Africa (Oxford, James Currey, 1999).
116. On the complex agency of 'resilient survivors', see N. Scheper-Hughes, 'A Talent for Life: Reflections on Human Vulnerability and Resilience', Ethnos, 73, 1 (2008), pp. 25-56.
117. S. Finnstrom, Living with Bad Surroundings. War, History, and Everyday Moments in Northern Uganda (Durham, NC and London, Duke University Press, 2008), p. 132.
118. See Jones, this volume.
119. Scheper-Hughes, 'A Talent for Life'.
120. See for example C. Buckle, African Tears: The Zimbabwe Land Invasions (Cape Town, Jonathan Ball, 2002).
121. P. Godwin, When a Crocodile Eats the Sun (London, Picador, 2007).
122. For a critical analysis, see R. Primorac 'Rhodesians Never Die: The Zimbabwe Crisis and the Revival of Rhodesian Discourse', in McGregor and Primorac (eds), Zimbabwe's New Diaspora. For a wider range of memories of displacement and suffering.
123. see I. Staunton (ed.), Damage. The Personal Costs of Political Change in Zimbabwe (Harare, Weaver Press, 2009).
124. For a selection of poetry that addresses a range of post-2000 issues, see the Zimbabwe page of Poetry International at http://zimbabwe.poetryinternationalweb.org/, and T. Mushakavanhu and D. Nettleingham (eds), State of the Nation. Contemporary Zimbabwean Poetry (Faversham, The Conversation Paper Press, 2009).
125. See for example, I. Staunton (ed) Writing Still (Harare, Weaver Press, 2003).
126. C. Mlalazi, Dancing With Life: Tales from the Township (Bulawayo, 'Amabooks', 2008).
127. P. Gappah, An Elegy for Easterly (London, Faber and Faber, 2009).
128. See for example V. Tagwira, The Uncertainty of Hope; B. Chikwava, Harare North (London, Jonathan Cape, 2009).
129. J. Eppel, Absent: The English Teacher (Johannesburg, Jacana, 2009).
130. While mostly performed rather than published, plays such as Daves Guzha's 'The Two Leaders I Know' (2008).
131. Cont Mhlanga's banned 'The Good President' (2008).
132. And Andrew Whaley's BBC 3 radio drama, 'Great Escape' (2008), are examples of this important genre.
133. Finnstrom, Living with Bad Surroundings.
134. On the mixed responses of other regional neighbours to Zimbabweans crossing their borders, see 'Govt spends P5 million on Zim deportees', Mmegi (Botswana), 26 February 2010. Accessed at http://www.zwnews.com/ issuefull.cfm?ArticleID = 22161, 1 March 2010. See also Hammar, this issue, concerning the ambivalence towards white farmers in Mozambique.