Impact of antibiotic resistance in the management of ocular infections: The role of current and future antibiotics

Clinical Ophthalmology

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 507-521

  Bertino Jr , Joseph S ^a,b  

^a Columbia University ^*  (United States)

^b BERTINO CONSULTING   (United States)

Author keywords

Besifloxacin; Emerging pathogen drug resistance; Fluoroquinolones; Ocular infections

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AZITHROMYCIN; BACITRACIN; CEFAZOLIN; CEFTAZIDIME; CEFUROXIME; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLINDAMYCIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DOXYCYCLINE; ERYTHROMYCIN; GATIFLOXACIN; GENTAMICIN; LEVOFLOXACIN; MACROLIDE; MINOCYCLINE; MOXIFLOXACIN; OFLOXACIN; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; POLYMYXIN; POLYTRIM; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; SULFONAMIDE; TETRACYCLINE DERIVATIVE; TOBRAMYCIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; BACTERIAL MUTATION; BLEPHARITIS; CONJUNCTIVITIS; DACRYOCYSTITIS; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG PENETRATION; ENDOPHTHALMITIS; EYE INFECTION; GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIUM; GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIUM; HUMAN; INFECTION RISK; KERATITIS; ORBIT CELLULITIS; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

EID: 77953422828     PISSN: 11775467     EISSN: 11775483     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/opth.s5778     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Snyder R, Glasser D. Antibiotic therapy for ocular infection. West J Med. 1994;161(6):579-584.
2. Hughes L, Maurice D. A fresh look at iontophoresis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984;102(12):1825-1829.
3. Hovding G. Acute bacterial conjunctivitis. Acta Ophthalmol. 2008; 86(1):5-17.
4. Rose P. Management strategies for acute infective conjunctivitis in primary care: a systematic review. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2007;8(12):1903-1921.
5. Allan BD, Dart JK. Strategies for the management of microbial keratitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1995;79(8):777-786.
6. Bourcier T, Thomas F, Borderie V, Chaumeil C, Laroche L. Bacterial keratitis: predisposing factors, clinical and microbiological review of 300 cases. Br J Ophthalmol. 2003;87(7):834-838.
7. Green M, Apel A, Stapleton F. Risk factors and causative organisms in microbial keratitis. Cornea. 2008;27(1):22-27.
8. Green MD, Apel AJ, Naduvilath T, Stapleton FJ. Clinical outcomes of keratitis. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2007;35(5): 421-426.
9. Callegan MC, Gilmore MS, Gregory M, et al. Bacterial endophthalmitis: therapeutic challenges and host-pathogen interactions. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2007;26(2):189-203.
10. DeCroos FC, Afshari NA. Perioperative antibiotics and antiinflammatory agents in cataract surgery. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2008;19(1):22-26.
11. Kowalski RP, Dhaliwal DK. Ocular bacterial infections: current and future treatment options. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2005;3(1):131-139.
12. Tovilla-Canales JL, Nava A, Tovilla y Pomar JL. Orbital and periorbital infections. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2001;12(5):335-341.
13. Campolattaro BN, Lueder GT, Tychsen L. Spectrum of pediatric dacryocystitis: medical and surgical management of 54 cases. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1997;34(3):143-153.
14. Summary benchmarks for preferred practice pattern guidelines. San Francisco, CA: American Academy of Ophthalmology; 2007.
15. American Academy of Ophthalmology Cornea and External Disease Panel. Preferred practice pattern: conjunctivitis. San Francisco, CA: American Academy of Ophthalmology; 2003.
16. American Academy of Ophthalmology Cornea and External Disease Panel. Preferred practice pattern: bacterial keratitis. San Francisco, CA: American Academy of Ophthalmology; 2005.
17. Dart JK, Radford CF, Minassian D, Verma S, Stapleton F. Risk factors for microbial keratitis with contemporary contact lenses: a case-control study. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(10):1647-1654.
18. Donahue SP, Khoury JM, Kowalski RP. Common ocular infections. A prescriber's guide. Drugs. 1996;52(4):526-540.
19. Bartlett JD. Ophthalmic Drug Facts. 20th ed. St. Louis, MO: Wolters Kluwer Health; 2009.
20. Mulligan MJ, Cobbs CG. Bacteriostatic versus bactericidal activity. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1989;3(3):389-398.
21. Fraunfelder F. Corneal toxicity from topical ocular and systemic medications. Cornea. 2006;25(10):1133-1138.
22. Schlech BA, Blondeau J. Future of ophthalmic anti-infective therapy and the role of moxifloxacin ophthalmic solution 0.5% (VIGAMOX). Surv Ophthalmol. 2005;50(Suppl 1):S64-S67.
23. Kowalski RP, Dhaliwal DK, Karenchak LM, et al. Gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin: an in vitro susceptibility comparison to levofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin using bacterial keratitis isolates. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136(3):500-505.
24. Stratton CW. Dead bugs don't mutate: susceptibility issues in the emergence of bacterial resistance. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9(1):10-16.
25. Asbell PA, Sahm DF. Nationwide antimicrobial susceptibility surveillance of ocular isolates: results of Ocular TRUST. Presented at the American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery Annual Meeting; 2007 Apr 22-May 2; San Diego, CA. Abstract #P-114.
26. Asbell PA, Colby KA, Deng S, et al. Ocular TRUST: nationwide antimicrobial susceptibility patterns in ocular isolates. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145(6):951-958.
27. Asbell PA, Sahm DF, Shaw M, Draghi DC, Brown NP. Increasing prevalence of methicillin resistance in serious ocular infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus in the United States: 2000 to 2005. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2008;34(5):814-818.
28. Hwang DG. The top four errors in prescribing antibiotics. Cataract Refract Surg Today. Feb. 2005:55-58.
29. Blondeau JM, Hansen G, Metzler K, Hedlin P. The role of PK/PD parameters to avoid selection and increase of resistance: mutant prevention concentration. J Chemother. 2004;16(Suppl 3):1-19.
30. Bartlett JD, Jaanus S. Clinical Ocular Pharmacology. St. Louis, MO: Butterworth Heinemann Elsevier; 2008.
31. Cavuoto K, Zutshi D, Karp CL, Miller D, Feuer W. Update on bacterial conjunctivitis in South Florida. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(1): 51-56.
32. Sheikh A, Hurwitz B. Antibiotics versus placebo for acute bacterial conjunctivitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(2):CD001211.
33. Pachigolla G, Blomquist P, Cavanagh HD. Microbial keratitis pathogens and antibiotic susceptibilities: a 5-year review of cases at an urban county hospital in north Texas. Eye Contact Lens. 2007;33(1):45-49.
34. Keay L, Edwards K, Naduvilath T, et al. Microbial keratitis predisposing factors and morbidity. Ophthalmology. 2006;113(1):109-116.
35. Ciloxan [package insert]. Fort Worth, TX; Alcon Laboratories, Inc; March 1998.
36. Ocuflox [package insert]. Irvine, CA; Allergan Inc; July 1993.
37. Iquix [package insert] Jacksonville, FL; Vistakon Pharmaceuticals LLC; April 2007.
38. Bhavsar AR, Ip MS, Glassman AR. The risk of endophthalmitis following intravitreal triamcinolone injection in the DRCRnet and SCORE clinical trials. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;144(3):454-456.
39. Jonas JB. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide: a change in a paradigm. Ophthalmic Res. 2006;38(4):218-245.
40. Taban M, Behrens A, Newcomb R, et al. Acute endophthalmitis following cataract surgery: a systematic review of the literature. Arch Ophthalmol. 2005;123(5):613-620.
41. West ES, Behrens A, McDonnell PJ, Tielsch JM, Schein OD. The incidence of endophthalmitis after cataract surgery among the US Medicare population increased between 1994 and 2001. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(8):1388-1394.
42. Johnson M, Doft B, Kelsey S, et al. The Endophthalmitis Vitrectomy Study: relationship between clinical presentation and microbiologic spectrum. Ophthalmology. 1997;104(2):261-272.
43. Jager R, Aiello L, Patel S, Cunningham EJ. Risks of intravitreous injection: a comprehensive review. Retina. 2004;24(5):676-698.
44. Jonas JB, Kreissig I, Spandau UH, Harder B. Infectious and noninfectious endophthalmitis after intravitreal high-dosage triamcinolone acetonide. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(3):579-580.
45. Jonas JB, Spandau UH, Rensch F, Von Baltz S, Schlichtenbrede F. Infectious and noninfectious endophthalmitis after intravitreal bevacizumab. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2007;23(3):240-242.
46. Jonas JB, Spandau UH, Schlichtenbrede F. Short-term complications of intravitreal injections of triamcinolone and bevacizumab. Eye. 2008;22(4):590-591.
47. Yam JC, Kwok AK. Update of the management of postoperative endophthalmitis. Hong Kong Med J. 2004;10(5):337-343.
48. Chhabra S, Kunimoto DY, Kazi L, et al. Endophthalmitis after open globe injury: microbiologic spectrum and susceptibilities of isolates. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;142(5):852-854.
49. Recchia FM, Busbee BG, Pearlman RB, Carvalho-Recchia CA, Ho AC. Changing trends in the microbiologic aspects of postcataract endophthalmitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 2005;123(3):341-346.
50. Moshirfar M, Feiz V, Vitale AT, Wegelin JA, Basavanthappa S, Wolsey DH. Endophthalmitis after uncomplicated cataract surgery with the use of fourth-generation fluoroquinolones: a retrospective observational case series. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(4):686-691.
51. Olson R. Reducing the risk of postoperative endophthalmitis. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49(Suppl 2):S55-S61.
52. Kelkar A, Kelkar J, Amuaku W, Kelkar U, Shaikh A. How to prevent endophthalmitis in cataract surgeries. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2008;56(5):403-407.
53. Endophthalmitis Study Group, European Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgeons. Prophylaxis of postoperative endophthalmitis following cataract surgery: results of the ESCRS multicenter study and identification of risk factors. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2007;33(6):978-988.
54. Masket S. Preventing, diagnosing, and treating endophthalmitis. J Cataract Refract Surg. 1998;24(6):725-726.
55. Schmitz S, Dick H, Krummenauer F, Pfeiffer N. Endophthalmitis in cataract surgery: results of a German survey. Ophthalmology. 1999; 106(10):1869-1877.
56. Jackson W. Blepharitis: current strategies for diagnosis and management. Can J Ophthalmol. 2008;43(2):170-179.
57. Groden L, Murphy B, Rodnite J, et al. Lid flora in blepharitis. Cornea. 1991;10:50-53.
58. Rutar T, Zwick OM, Cockerham KP, Horton JC. Bilateral blindness from orbital cellulitis caused by community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140(4): 740-742.
59. Cannon P, Keag D, Radford R, Ataullah S, Leatherbarrow B. Our experience using primary oral antibiotics in the management of orbital cellulitis in a tertiary referral centre. Eye. 2009;23(3):612-615.
60. Das J, Deka A, Kuri G, Bhattacharjee K, Das D, Gogoi K. Bacteriology of chronic dacryocystitis in adult population of northeast India. Orbit. 2008;27(4):243-247.
61. Kubal A, Garibaldi D. Dacryoadenitis caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24(1):50-61.
62. Briscoe D, Rubowitz A, Assia E. Changing bacterial isolates and antibiotic sensitivities of purulent dacryocystitis. Orbit. 2005;24(2):95-98.
63. Harbarth S, Samore MH. Antimicrobial resistance determinants and future control. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(6):794-801.
64. Gums JG, Boatwright DW, Totti N, Martinez M. Antimicrobial resistance in 11 hospitals in Puerto Rico: results of an antimicrobial resistance management (ARM) program. P R Health Sci J. 2007;26(3): 181-189.
65. Goldstein MH, Kowalski RP, Gordon YJ. Emerging fluoroquinolone resistance in bacterial keratitis: a 5-year review. Ophthalmology. 1999; 106(7):1313-1318.
66. Miliani K, L'Heriteau F, Alfandari S, et al. Specific control measures for antibiotic prescription are related to lower consumption in hospitals: results from a French multicentre pilot study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;62(4):823-829.
67. Hoban D, Felmingham D. The PROTEKT surveillance study: antimicrobial susceptibility of Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis from community-acquired respiratory tract infections. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;50(Suppl S1):49-59.
68. Kirby JT, Mutnick AH, Jones RN, Biedenbach DJ, Pfaller MA. Geographic variations in garenoxacin (BMS284756) activity tested against pathogens associated with skin and soft tissue infections: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (2000). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2002;43(4):303-309.
69. Tenover FC. Mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. Am J Med. 2006;119(6 Suppl 1):S3-S10; discussion S62-S70.
70. Barlow G, Nathwani D. Is antibiotic resistance a problem? A practical guide for hospital clinicians. Postgrad Med J. 2005;81(961): 680-692.
71. Croft AC, D'Antoni AV, Terzulli SL. Update on the antibacterial resistance crisis. Med Sci Monit. 2007;13(6):RA103-RA118.
72. Brown SD, Rybak MJ. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes and Haemophilus influenzae collected from patients across the USA, in 2001-2002, as part of the PROTEKT US study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;54(Suppl 1): i7-i15.
73. Jacobs MR, Felmingham D, Appelbaum PC, Gruneberg RN. The Alexander Project 1998-2000: susceptibility of pathogens isolated from community-acquired respiratory tract infection to commonly used antimicrobial agents. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003;52(2): 229-246.
74. Marangon FB, Miller D, Muallem MS, Romano AC, Alfonso EC. Ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin resistance among methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus isolates from keratitis and conjunctivitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(3):453-458.
75. Blomquist PH. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections of the eye and orbit (an American Ophthalmological Society thesis). Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 2006;104:322-345.
76. McDonald MB, Blondeau JM, DeCory HH, et al. Multidrug-resistant strains in clinical trials of besifloxacin in the treatment of bacterial conjunctivitis. Presented at the American Academy of Ophthalmology Annual Meeting; 2008 Nov 8-11; Atlanta, GA, USA.Poster 070.
77. Buznach N, Dagan R, Greenberg D. Clinical and bacterial characteristics of acute bacterial conjunctivitis in children in the antibiotic resistance era. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005;24(9):823-828.
78. Ohnsman C, Ritterband D, O'Brien T, Girgis D, Kabat A. Comparison of azithromycin and moxifloxacin against bacterial isolates causing conjunctivitis. Curr Med Res Opin. 2007;23(9):2241-2249. 79. Lichtenstein SJ, Wagner RS, Jamison T, Bell B, Stroman DW. Speed of bacterial kill with a fluoroquinolone compared with nonfluoroquinolones: clinical implications and a review of kinetics of kill studies. Adv Ther. 2007;24(5):1098-1111.
79. Chalita MR, Hofling-Lima AL, Paranhos A Jr, Schor P, Belfort R Jr. Shifting trends in in vitro antibiotic susceptibilities for common ocular isolates during a period of 15 years. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(1): 43-51.
80. Oliveira AD, D'Azevedo PA, Francisco W. In vitro activity of fluoroquinolones against ocular bacterial isolates in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Cornea. 2007;26(2):194-198.
81. Afshari NA, Ma JJ, Duncan SM, et al. Trends in resistance to ciprofloxacin, cefazolin, and gentamicin in the treatment of bacterial keratitis. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2008;24(2):217-223.
82. Tuft SJ, Matheson M. In vitro antibiotic resistance in bacterial keratitis in London. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84(7):687-691.
83. Parmar P, Salman A, Kalavathy CM, et al. Comparison of topical gatifloxacin 0.3% and ciprofloxacin 0.3% for the treatment of bacterial keratitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(2):282-286.
84. Wilhelmus KR, Abshire RL, Schlech BA. Influence of fluoroquinolone susceptibility on the therapeutic response of fluoroquinolone-treated bacterial keratitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121(9):1229-1233.
85. Moshirfar M, Mirzaian G, Feiz V, Kang PC. Fourth-generation fluoroquinolone-resistant bacterial keratitis after refractive surgery. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2006;32(3):515-518.
86. Miller D, Flynn PM, Scott IU, Alfonso EC, Flynn HW Jr. In vitro fluoroquinolone resistance in staphylococcal endophthalmitis isolates. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006;124(4):479-483.
87. Asbell PA, Sahm DF. Longitudinal nationwide antimicrobial susceptibility surveillance in ocular isolates: results from Ocular TRUST 2. Presented at: American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery Annual Meeting; 2007 April 27-May 2; San Diego, CA, USA.
88. Morrissey I, Burnett R, Viljoen L, Robbins M. Surveillance of the susceptibility of ocular bacterial pathogens to the fluoroquinolone gatifloxacin and other antimicrobials in Europe during 2001/2002. J Infect. 2004;49(2):109-114.
89. Brown L. Resistance to ocular antibiotics: an overview. Clin Exp Optom. 2007;90(4):258-262.
90. Tzepi I, Vergados I, Kanellakopoulou K, et al. Pharmacokinetics of intravenously administered moxifloxacin in eye compartments: an experimental study. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2009;33(2):160-162.
91. Wise R, Andrews J. The bactericidal activity of gatifloxacin in plasma and urine. Clin Microbiol Infect. 1998;4(7):392-396.
92. Drusano GL. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antimicrobials. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(Suppl 1):S89-S95.
93. Ambrose PG, Bhavnani SM, Rubino CM, et al. Pharmacokinetics- pharmacodynamics of antimicrobial therapy: it's not just for mice anymore. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(1):79-86.
94. Wright DH, Brown GH, Peterson ML, Rotschafer JC. Application of fluoroquinolone pharmacodynamics. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000; 46(5):669-683.
95. Firsov AA, Lubenko IY, Vostrov SN, Portnoy YA, Zinner SH. Antistaphylococcal effect related to the area under the curve/MIC ratio in an in vitro dynamic model: predicted breakpoints versus clinically achievable values for seven fluoroquinolones. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(7):2642-2647.
96. Blondeau JM, Zhao X, Hansen G, Drlica K. Mutant prevention concentrations of fluoroquinolones for clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45(2):433-438.
97. Metzler K, Hansen GM, Hedlin P, Harding E, Drlica K, Blondeau JM. Comparison of minimal inhibitory and mutant prevention drug concentrations of 4 fluoroquinolones against clinical isolates of methicillin-susceptible and -resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2004;24(2):161-167.
98. Drusano GL, Louie A, Deziel M, Gumbo T. The crisis of resistance: identifying drug exposures to suppress amplification of resistant mutant subpopulations. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(4):525-532.
99. Tam VH, Louie A, Fritsche TR, et al. Impact of drug-exposure intensity and duration of therapy on the emergence of Staphylococcus aureus resistance to a quinolone antimicrobial. J Infect Dis. 2007; 195(12):1818-1827.
100. Robertson SM, Curtis MA, Schlech BA, et al. Ocular pharmacokinetics of moxifloxacin after topical treatment of animals and humans. Surv Ophthalmol. 2005;50 (Suppl 1):S32-S45.
101. Quixin [package insert]. Jacksonville, FL; Vistakon Pharmaceuticals LLC; April 2006.
102. Blondeau JM. Fluoroquinolones: mechanism of action, classification, and development of resistance. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49(Suppl 2): S73-S78.
103. Ward KW, Lepage JF, Driot JY. Nonclinical pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and safety of BOL-303224-A, a novel fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent for topical ophthalmic use. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2007;23(3):243-256.
104. Cambau E, Matrat S, Pan XS, et al. Target specificity of the fluoroquinolone besifloxacin in Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;63(3):443-450.
105. Brunner LS, Norton SE, Blondeau JM. In vitro activity of SS734, a novel fluoroquinolone, against pathogens associated with bacterial conjunctivitis. [poster] 17th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases; March 31-April 3, 2007; Munich, Germany. Poster P1679.
106. Proksch JW, Driot JY, Ward KW. Nonclinical ocular and systemic pharmacokinetics of BOL-303224-A, a novel fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent for topical ophthalmic use. Presented at the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology Annual Meeting; 2007 Apr 27-May 1; Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA. Poster #B654.
107. Chappa AK, Proksch JW, Ward KW. Comparison of the ocular and systemic pharmacokinetics of besifloxacin, a novel fluoroquinolone antibiotic, with moxifloxacin and gatifloxacin in pigmented rabbits. Presented at the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology Annual Meeting; 2008 Apr 27-May 1; Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA. Poster #D684.
108. Zhang JZ, Cavet ME, Ward KW. Anti-inflammatory effects of besifloxacin, a novel fluoroquinolone, in primary human corneal epithelial cells. Curr Eye Res. 2008;33(11):923-933.
109. Zhang JZ, Ward KW. Besifloxacin, a novel fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent, exhibits potent inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines in human THP-1 monocytes. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;61(1):111-116.
110. Granvil CP, Siou-Mermet R, Comstock T, Jonasse M, Proksch JW. Ocular pharmacokinetics of besifloxacin, a novel fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent for topical ophthalmic use, in healthy volunteers. Presented at the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology Annual Meeting; 2008 Apr 27-May 1; Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA. Poster #D691.
111. Proksch J, Granvil CP, Siou-Mermet R, Comstock T, Paterno M, Ward KW. Ocular pharmacokinetics of besifloxacin following topical administration to rabbits, monkeys, and humans. J Ocul Pharm Ther. 2009;25(4):335-341.
112. Liu Z, Li J, Nie S, Liu H, Ding P, Pan W. Study of an alginate/HPMC-based in situ gelling ophthalmic delivery system for gatifloxacin. Int J Pharm. 2006;315(1-2):12-17.
113. Mansour M, Mansour S, Mortada ND, Abd Elhady SS. Ocular poloxamer-based ciprofloxacin hydrochloride in situ forming gels. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2008;34(7):744-752.
114. Abraham S, Furtado S, Bharath S, Basavaraj BV, Deveswaran R, Madhavan V. Sustained ophthalmic delivery of ofloxacin from an ion-activated in situ gelling system. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2009;22(2):175-179.
115. Karpecki P, DePaolis M, Hunter JA, et al. Besifloxacin ophthalmic suspension 0.6% in patients with bacterial conjunctivitis: a multicenter, prospective, randomized, double-masked, vehicle-controlled, 5-day efficacy and safety study. Clin Ther. 2009;31(3):514-526.
116. Tepedino ME, Heller WH, Usner DW, et al. Phase III efficacy and safety study of besifloxacin ophthalmic suspension 0.6% in the treatment of bacterial conjunctivitis. Curr Med Res Opin. 2009;25(5):1159-1169.
117. McDonald MB, Protzko EE, Brunner LS, et al. Efficacy and safety of besifloxacin ophthalmic suspension 0.6% compared with moxifloxacin ophthalmic solution 0.5% for treating bacterial conjunctivitis. Ophthalmology. 2009;116(9):1615-1623.
118. Antibiotic/Antimicrobial Resistance: Clinical guidelines. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/DRUGRESISTANCE/clinical.htm. Accessed Dec. 5, 2008.
119. World Health Organization. Antimicrobial resistance. Available at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs194/en/print.html. 2002; Fact sheet 194. Accessed Dec. 5, 2008.
120. Yoneyama H, Katsumata R. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria and its future for novel antibiotic development. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2006;70(5):1060-1075.