A Pox on Your Narrative: Writing Disease Control into Cold War History

Diplomatic History

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 299-323

  Manela, Erez ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 77953218004     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: 14677709     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.2009.00850.x     Document Type: Note

References (103)

1. The assembly typically met at the organization's headquarters in Geneva's Palais des Nations. It gathered in Minneapolis to mark the WHO's tenth anniversary at the invitation of Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey, a long-time internationalist who had wanted to showcase U.S. support for the organization.
2. The USSR and other Soviet Bloc countries withdrew from the WHO in 1948, protesting that it did not channel sufficient resources to Eastern Europe. The WHO, however, argued that its constitution contained no provision for withdrawal and continued to count these countries as members. Javed Siddiqi, World Health and World Politics: The World Health Organization and the UN System (London, 1995), 104-09.
3. Thomas Jefferson to Edward Jenner, May 14, 1806, The Thomas Jefferson Papers, Series 1, General Correspondence, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. In the WHA minutes the same quote, presumably having been translated from English to Russian and back into English, appears in rather less elegant phrasing: "in the future the peoples of the world will learn about this disgusting smallpox disease only from ancient traditions." See "Eradication of Smallpox: Report Submitted by the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics," in Official Records of the World Health Organization, No. 87 (1958): 508 (hereafter ORWHO). Also see F. Fenner, D. A. Henderson, I. Arita, Z. Ježek, and I. D. Ladnyi, Smallpox and Its Eradication (Geneva, 1988), 366-68 (hereafter SAIE).
4. Malcolm Gladwell offered a heroic account of the rise and fall of the malaria campaign in "The Mosquito Killer," The New Yorker, July 2, 2001, 42-51. A more critical perspective is Randall M.Packard, " 'No Other Logical Choice': Global Malaria Eradication and the Politics of International Health," Parassitologia 40 (June 1998): 217-230. See also Randall M. Packard, "Malaria Dreams: Postwar Visions of Health and Development in the Third World," Medical Anthropology 17 (1997): 279-96.
5. White House press release, May 18, 1965, White House Central Files, Ex HE/MC, box 6, Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, Austin, Texas (hereafter LBJL).
6. This is approximately equivalent to the estimated number of annual global deaths attributed to HIV/AIDS in 2008 and roughly twice the number attributed to malaria. See data at http://www.globalhealthfacts.org.
7. The Global Eradication of Smallpox: Final Report of the Global Commission for the Certification of Smallpox, Geneva, December 1979 (Geneva, 1980).
8. The 300 million figure is cited, inter alia, in Michael B. A. Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues, & History (New York, 1998), 27; others have cited estimates as high as 500 million. Since the great majority of smallpox deaths, even in the twentieth century, occurred in regions and periods for which there are few reliable data, it is not easy to gauge the accuracy of these estimates. But given that the influenza pandemic of 1918-19 killed at least 21 million people worldwide in less than a year - Alfred Crosby called this figure "probably a gross underestimation" - 300 million smallpox deaths over the course of nearly eight decades does not seem implausible. See Alfred Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918, 2nd ed. (New York, 2003), 207. For war's death toll in the twentieth century see Niall Ferguson, The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West (New York, 2006).
9. Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge, 2005).
10. On epistemic communities in international affairs, see Peter M. Haas, "Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination," International Organization 46, no. 1 (Winter 1992): 1-35, as well as the other essays in that special issue.
11. Akira Iriye, Global Community: The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World (Berkeley, CA, 2002); Amy L. S. Staples, The Birth of Development: How the World Bank, Food And Agriculture Organization, And World Health Organization Have Changed the World 1945-1965 (Kent, Ohio, 2006)
12. Matthew Connelly, "Seeing beyond the State: Population Control and the Question of Sovereignty," Past & Present 193 (2006): 197-233; Matthew Connelly, Fatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Population (Cambridge, MA, 2008). The phrase "seeing beyond the state" echoes James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT, 1998
13. See, e.g., John Farley, To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation, 1913-1951 (New York, 2004); Anne-Emanuelle Birn, Marriage of Convenience: Rockefeller International Health and Revolutionary Mexico (Rochester, NY, 2006); Marcos Cueto, Cold War, Deadly Fevers: Malaria Eradication in Mexico, 1955-1975 (Baltimore, 2007); Randall Packard, The Making of a Tropical Disease: A Short History of Malaria (Baltimore, 2008); Alison Bashford, "Global Biopolitics and the History of World Health," History of the Human Sciences 19, no. 1 (2006): 67-88.
14. Matthew Connelly "Taking Off the Cold War Lens: Visions of North-South Conflict during the Algerian War for Independence," American Historical Review 105 (2000): 739-69.
15. In international relations, see, e.g., Andrew Hurrell, On Global Order: Power, Values, and the Constitution of International Society (Oxford, 2007); in international law, see Anne-Marie Slaughter, A New World Order (Princeton, NJ, 2004); in sociology, see John Boli et al., "World Society and the Nation-State," American Journal of Sociology 103, no. 1 (1998): 144-81
16. John Boli and George M. Thomas, eds., Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875 (Stanford, CA, 1999). On the recent historical literature, see Jeremi Suri, "Non-Governmental Organizations and Non-State Actors," in Palgrave Advances in International History, ed. Patrick Finney (London, 2005), 223-46.
17. For a useful but in this rapidly growing field already somewhat dated survey of the topic, see Nick Cullather, "Development? It's History," Diplomatic History 24 (2000): 641-53.
18. On Elizabeth I, see Donald R. Hopkins, The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History, 2nd ed. with a new introduction (Chicago, 2002); on Stalin's experience with smallpox, see Raymond Birt, "Personality and Foreign Policy: The Case of Stalin," Political Psychology 14, no. 4 (December 1993): 616.
19. Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CT, 1972), esp. 42-62; Elizabeth A. Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82 (New York, 2001). On the impact of disease on history, see also William McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (New York, 1976).
20. Cyril William Dixon, Smallpox (London, 1962), chap. 10.
21. Ibid., chap. 12. The term "vaccine," derived from the Latin vacca, or cow, was coined in the nineteenth century to honor Jenner's discovery.
22. On the spread of vaccination in Europe, see Peter Baldwin, Contagion and the State in Europe, 1830-1930 (Cambridge, 1999), chap. 4.
23. Unsigned memorandum dated December 9, 1927, box R940, folder 39435, League of Nations Archive, Geneva, Switzerland.
24. SAIE, chap. 8; Second Report on the World Health Situation, 1957-1960 (Geneva, 1963), 16.
25. A. T. Kravchenko, "Lenin's Decree Concerning the Control of Natural Smallpox," Voprosy virusologii 15, no. 1 (1970): 3-6
26. A. T. Kravchenko, "The History of Smallpox Eradication in the USSR," Zhurnal mikrobiologii, epidemiologii, i immunobiologii 47, no. 2 (February 1970): 3-8. I thank Marina Ivanova for her assistance with this material.
27. V. M. Zhdanov, The Control of Infectious Disease in the USSR (Moscow, 1959).
28. Martin David Dubin, "The League of Nations Health Organisation," esp. 67-69 and Marta Aleksandra Balinska, "Assistance and Not Mere Relief: The Epidemic Commissions of the League of Nations, 1920-1923," esp. 93-99, both in Paul Weindling, ed., International Health Organisations and Movements, 1918-1939 (Cambridge, 1995).
29. On the internationalization of public health in the interwar years, see Sunil S. Amrith, Decolonizing International Health: India and Southeast Asia, 1930-65 (New York, 2006), chap. 1.
30. Hans Zinsser, Rats, Lice and History (Boston, 1935), 293. Zinsser's book has continued to be widely read in the decades since its publication and international public health practitioners often cite it as an important inspiration. For more on this ethos, see James Watt, "International Cooperation for Health - A Modern Imperative," in Records Group (RG) 90, box 42, folder "International Cooperation Year" (U.S. National Archives, Washington, DC (hereafter USNA).
31. In such cases Zhdanov suggested employing the so-called Leicester system, which originated in nineteenth century Britain and eschewed compulsion to rely instead on surveillance, identification, and isolation of suspected cases. The system had been devised in response to strong public resistance to compulsory vaccination. See Stuart M. F. Fraser, "Leicester and Smallpox: The Leicester Method," Medical History 24 (1980): 315-32; Baldwin, Contagion and the State, 321-23. As it turned out, surveillance and targeted vaccination proved much more important to the success of the SEP than universal compulsory vaccination.
32. "Eradication of Smallpox," 508-12. Also SAIE, 366-71.
33. Resolution EB22.R12, "Gifts of Smallpox Vaccine," Executive Board, 22nd Session, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 16-17, 1958, ORWHO 88:7.
34. On the logic that led the WHO to launch the MEP, see Jose Alvarez Amézquita and Guillermo E. Samamé, "The Philosophy Doctrine of the Concept of Eradication," 8-9, pamphlet of text presented at the Fred L. Soper Conference, Mexico City, Mexico, October 1962 RG 90, box 22, folder "Association - APHA - Committee on Disease Eradication," USNA. On the political background, see Packard, "No Other Logical Choice"; Randall M. Packard, "Visions of Postwar Health and Development and their Impact on Public Health Interventions in the Developing World," in International Development and the Social Sciences, ed. Frederick Cooper and Randall M. Packard (Berkeley, CA, 1997), 93-118; Socrates Litsios, "Malaria Control, the Cold War, and the Postwar Reorganization of International Assistance," Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997): 255-78.
35. Siddiqi, World Health and World Politics, 142-43.
36. "Smallpox Eradication: Report by the Director-General," ORWHO 95 (12th WHA, 1959): 572-88.
37. ORWHO 95: 324-332, and WHA Resolution 12.54, "Smallpox Eradication," ORWHO 95: 47, 450-451. The U.S. delegation that year was headed by the Surgeon General and included Congressmen John E. Fogarty (D-RI) and Melvin Laird (R-WI).
38. "Briefing Paper - United States-Soviet Relations in Health," September 24, 1959, authored by the Interdepartmental Committee on International Health Policy in preparation for Khrushchev's U.S. visit in September 1959. RG 59, Office of International Economic and Social Affairs, Subject Files 1945-1962, box 5, folder "International Health Program, Inter-Agency Working Group on Int'l Health Matters," USNA. The paper suggested pointing to the MEP as an important way in which the United States was "expressing its strong support for the World Health Organization" and to "welcome further Soviet support for these multilateral activities."
39. Donald Henderson, "Smallpox Eradication - A Cold War Victory," World Health Forum 19 (1998): 114.
40. See, e.g., ORWHO 103 (13th WHA, 1960): 241-45; ORWHO 119 (15th WHA, 1962): 102-05.
41. Staples, Birth of Development, 161-71.
42. This was the focus of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962), a seminal text of the environmental movement.
43. James E. Perkins, managing director of the National Tuberculosis Association, to Ernest S. Tierkel, September 26, 1962. A memorandum by T. Aidan Cockburn, September 12, 1962, also ranked smallpox as the top candidate for global eradication. RG 90, box 22, folder "Association - APHA - Committee on Disease Eradication," USNA.
44. Perkins, to Watt, August 28,1962, Underlined in original, RG 90, box 22, folder "Association - APHA - Committee on Disease Eradication," USNA.
45. Levy to Holborn, n.d., and Holborn to Horowitz, March 12, 1965, White House Central Files, Ex HE/MC, box 6, LBJL.
46. White House Press Release, November 24, 1964, RG 90 (Records of the Public Health Service), box 42, folder "International Copperation Year (Committee)," USNA.
47. "President Johnson on International Cooperation Year," Department of State, Foreign Affairs Outline, 1965: International Cooperation Year, RG 90, box 42, folder "International Cooperation Year," USNA.
48. Cleveland to Cater, May 14 and 15, 1965, and Cater to Johnson, May 17, 1965, White House Central Files, Ex HE/MC, box 6, LBJL.
49. White House press release, May 18, 1965, White House Central Files, Ex HE/MC, box 6, LBJL.
50. US Mission, Geneva, telegram to SecState, May 19, 1965, RG 59, box 3159, folder "HLTH 3, Organizations and Conferences, WHO, 6/1/65," USNA.
51. US Embassy, Lomé to DOS, May 22, 1965, RG 59, box 3172, folder "HLTH - Health and Medical Care - T," USNA.
52. MemCon of meeting between Lambin and Walter Sherwin, July 22, 1965, RG 286, box 27, folder "HLS, Health," USNA. Upper Volta gained its independence from France in 1960 and was renamed Burkina Faso in 1984.
53. Joseph A. Califano, The Triumph & Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson: The White House Years (New York, 1991), 114.
54. Undated document, Office Files of Joseph A. Califano, box 29 (1737), folder "Health," underlined in the original, LBJL.
55. SAIE, 469, 564.
56. Confidential memorandum from Chief SE to Director CD, October 28, 1968, Smallpox Eradication Program papers, box 303, folder 30, WHO Archive, Geneva, Switzerland (hereafter WHOA-SEP). The CDC was later renamed the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, though the acronym CDC was kept.
57. Henderson, "Cold War Victory," 115-16.
58. Confidential memorandum from Chief, Smallpox Eradication to Director, Communicable Diseases, October 28, 1968, WHOA-SEP, box 303, folder 3.
59. Henderson to Assistant DG Payne, "Summary Report - Visit to Moscow to Discuss Matters Pertinent to the SE Program," July 27, 1967, WHOA-SEP, box 303, folder 30; Henderson, "Cold War Victory," 116-17.
60. The First Circle dealt with the compromised moral condition of imprisoned Soviet scientists who had served Stalin's regime in exchange for improved living conditions, no doubt an uncomfortable subject for Soviet epidemiologists. The title alluded to Dante's famous description of the condition of the ancient Greek philosophers, living in relative peace within a walled green garden located in the heart of hell.
61. Henderson, "Cold War Victory," 119.
62. SAIE, 464. Other donors who contributed more than U.S.$1 million were Sweden, the Netherlands, Canada, Denmark, and the Japan Shipbuilding Industry Foundation.
63. In the period from 1958 to 1979, the USSR donated a total of 1.4 billion doses bilaterally to endemic countries, while the United States contributed 190 million doses bilaterally, largely to countries in west and central Africa. In addition, the USSR accounted for more than 298 million out of a total of 465 million vaccine doses donated to the WHO Voluntary Fund for Health Promotion, Special Account for Smallpox Eradication, from 1967 to 1984; the U.S. donated only 2.4 million of that total. SAIE, 469, 564.
64. Kristin L. Ahlberg, " 'Machiavelli with a Heart': The Johnson Administration's Food for Peace Program in India, 1965-1966," Diplomatic History 31, no.4 (2007): 665-701.
65. Sencer was CDC head from 1966 to 1977. On his and the CDC's role in the SEP, see Elizabeth W. Etheridge, Sentinel for Health: A History of the Centers for Disease Control (Berkeley, CA, 1992), chap. 14; also Lawrence Brilliant to Califano, February 26, 1977, copy in possession of author.
66. Westad, Global Cold War, 397.
67. "President Johnson on International Cooperation Year," RG 90, box 42, folder "International Cooperation Year," USNA, On the character and implications of the "high modernist" convergence during these decades, see Scott, Seeing Like a State. On U.S.-Soviets agreements and disagreements in the field of economics, see David C. Engerman, "The Romance of Economic Development and New Histories of the Cold War," Diplomatic History 28, no. 1 (2004): 23-54.
68. Nick Cullather, "Damming Afghanistan: Modernization in a Buffer State," Journal of American History 89, no. 2 (September 2002): 512-37; David Ekbladh, " 'Mr. TVA': Grass-Roots Development, David Lilienthal, and the Rise and Fall of the Tennessee Valley Authority as a Symbol for U.S. Overseas Development, 1933-1973," Diplomatic History 26, no. 3 (2002): 335-74.
69. The literature on development as a knowledge/power regime is voluminous. See, e.g., Cooper and Packard., International Development and the Social Sciences, esp. the introduction and chaps. 2 and 3; and Frédérique Apffel Marglin and Stephen A. Marglin, eds., Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture, and Resistance (Oxford, 1990), esp. chaps. 4 and 5.
70. See, e.g., Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and "Nation Building" in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill, NC, 2000), esp. chap. 2.
71. E.g., Latham, Modernization as Ideology; Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore, 2003); Cullather, "Damming Afghanistan"; David C. Engerman et al., eds., Staging Growth: Modernization, Development, and the Global Cold War (Amherst, MA, 2003).
72. SAIE, 716, 887-88. For a critical approach to the interaction of vaccination and variolation in India, see Frédérique Apffel Marglin, "Smallpox in Two Systems of Knowledge," in Apffel Marglin and Marglin, eds., Dominating Knowledge, 102-44.
73. Henderson to Millar, May 29, 1967, WHOA-SEP, box 159, folder 378.
74. An undated narrative by A. G. Rangaraj, SEP chief in Afghanistan. On the program's battle against variolation, see also Chief SE/HQ to Regional Director, South East Asia Regional Office (SEARO), October 30, 1967, where Henderson complains that the Afghan government had not yet outlawed the practice; Henderson to Khwaja-Waisuddin, January 17, 1969; Henderson to Rangaraj, November 17, 1969; and an undated report on "Variolation in Afghanistan" by Vladimir Sery, Svend Brøgger, Amin Fakir, and Aminullah Saboor. All in WHOA-SEP, box 159, folder 378.
75. Paul Greenough, "Intimidation, Coercion and Resistance in the Final Stages of the South Asian Smallpox Campaign, 1973-1975," Social Science & Medicine 41 (1995): 633-45. Lawrence Brilliant with Girija Brilliant, "Death for a Killer Disease," Quest (May/June 1978): 3-10. Brilliant recalls how he led a team of vaccinators that broke in the dead of night into the home of a tribal leader in what was then southern Bihar. The man believed it was his religious duty to resist vaccination, and was subdued and vaccinated only after a violent struggle.
76. This was the conclusion, for example, of a study conducted in Dahomey and Togo in the early stages of the SEP. G. E. Robbins, "The Role of Fetish Practices in Vaccination Campaigns," in The SEP Report: Seminar on smallpox eradication and measles control in western and central Africa, Proceedings of a meeting held in Lagos, Nigeria, May 13-20, 1969, Part I. Unpublished CDC report, WHOA-SEP, box 52, folder 208.
77. Henderson to De, July 7, 1972, WHOA-SEP, box 193, folder 436.
78. Smallpox Training Seminar, Bhopal, April 29-May 3, 1974. See also confidential report from Ian D. Carter to R. N. Mitra, Feb. 10, 1974. Both in WHOA-SEP, box 194, folder 388.
79. Michael R. Albert, Kristen G. Ostheimer, and Joel G. Breman, "The Last Smallpox Epidemic in Boston and the Vaccination Controversy, 1901-1903," New England Journal of Medicine 344, no. 5 (February 2001): 375-79; Niels Brimnes and Christian W. McMillen, "Medical Modernization and Medical Nationalism: Resistance to Mass Tuberculosis Vaccination in Post-colonial India, 1948-1955," Comparative Studies in Society & History 52, no. 1 (2010): 1-30. I thank the authors for providing an advance copy.
80. Jonathan Tucker, Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox (New York, 2001), 3.
81. D. A. Henderson, "Surveillance - The Key to Smallpox Eradication," WHO document no. WHO/SE/68.2, WHO Library, Geneva, Switzerland.
82. John Kenneth Galbraith, The Nature of Mass Poverty (Cambridge, 1979), vi, cited in Cullather, "Development? It's History," 651.
83. On the construction of international authority in health, see Staples, Birth of Development, chap. 9.
84. Ibid., 143-44.
85. René Dubos, Man Adapting (New Haven, CT, 1965), 379. See also SAIE, 388.
86. US Mission, Geneva, telegram to SecState, May 18, 1965, RG 59, box 3159, folder "HLTH 3, Organizations and Conferences, WHO, 6/1/65," USNA.
87. Henderson has claimed that he accepted the assignment only under duress, but other evidence suggests that he wanted the appointment and maneuvered adroitly for it. Compare Henderson's own account in "Cold War Victory," 114-15 to the account in the oral history interview with David J. Sencer, CDC director 1966-1977, conducted by Victoria Harden, July 7, 2006, 16 (copy in author's possession). See also US Mission, Geneva, to DOS, November 18, 1965, RG 59, box 3162, folder "HLTH 8-2, Prevention, Control, Eradication, 1/1/64," USNA; US Mission Geneva to SecState, December 4, 1965, RG 59, box 3159, folder "HLTH 3, WHO, 10/1/65," USNA.
88. This is discussed in US Mission, Geneva, to DOS, March 30, 1966, and numerous other DOS dispatches in the spring of 1966, RG 59, box 3160, folder "HLTH 3, WHO, 1/1/66," USNA.
89. ORWHO 152 (19th WHA, 1966): 258-264, 288-296; US Mission, Geneva, to SecState, May 12, 1966, RG 59, box 3160, folder "HLTH 3, WHO, 5/1/66," USNA; SAIE, 414-16.
90. Sisco to Tubby, May 19, 1966, RG 59, box 3160, folder "HLTH 3, WHO, 5/1/66," USNA.
91. SAIE, 437-44.
92. Examples of such institutional resistance are found in "Strictly Confidential" memorandum from SEARO Regional Director to WHO HQ, May 1, 1967, WHOA-SEP, box 159, folder 378; SEARO Regional Director to DG, March 16, 1967, WHOA-SEP, box 193, folder 416. Also SAIE, 417-18; Henderson, "Cold War Victory," 114-15.
93. SAIE, 417.
94. Sung Lee, "WHO and the Developing World: The Contest for Ideology," in Western Medicine as Contested Knowledge, ed. Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews (Manchester, UK, 1997), 24-45. The "horizontal" vs. "vertical" debate is sometimes described as one between "holistic" and "reductionist" approaches.
95. Henderson interview with author, Baltimore, Maryland, July 18, 2007.
96. David A. Tejada de Rivero, "Alma-Ata Revisited," Perspectives in Health: The Magazine of the Pan American Health Organization 8, no. 2 (2003): 2-7.
97. Socrates Litsios, "The Long and Difficult Road to Alma-Ata: A Personal Reflection," International Journal of Health Services 32, no. 4 (2002), 709-32.
98. The full text of the Alma Ata Declaration is available at http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/declaration_almaata.pdf (accessed December 2009).
99. Neville M. Goodman, International Health Organizations and Their Work (London, 1952), 40-65.
100. On Soviet efforts to weaponize smallpox, see Ken Alibek, Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World, Told from the Inside by the Man Who Ran It (New York, 1999); Tucker, Scourge, esp. chap. 8.
101. A direction promoted, among others, by Akira Iriye in "Internationalizing International History," in Rethinking American History in a Global Age, ed. Thomas Bender (Berkeley, CA, 2002), 47-62, and recently discussed prominently in such fora as "AHR Conversation: On Transnational History," American Historical Review 111, no. 5 (December 2006), 1441-64, with the participation of C. A. Bayly, Sven Beckert, Matthew Connelly, Isabel Hofmeyr, Wendy Kozol, and Patricia Seed.
102. These are well summarized in Brenda Gayle Plummer, "The Changing Face of Diplomatic History: A Literature Review," The History Teacher 38, no. 3 (May 2005): 385-400.
103. On global environmental history, see the works of John R. McNeill, and on the history of environmental diplomacy, Kurkpatrick Dorsey, The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy: US-Canadian Wildlife Protection Treaties in the Progressive Era (Seattle, 1998). But much more remains to be done.