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Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 61-84

The movement to criminalize sex work in the United States

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EID: 77953217024     PISSN: 0263323X     EISSN: 14676478     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6478.2010.00495.x     Document Type: Note
Times cited : (74)

References (114)
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    • An exception is a bill in the Hawaii State Legislature in 2007, which would have decriminalized indoor prostitution and zoned street prostitution. The bill failed.
    • An exception is a bill in the Hawaii State Legislature in 2007, which would have decriminalized indoor prostitution and zoned street prostitution. The bill failed.
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    • 'Remaking the Sex Industry: The Adult Expo as a Microcosm' in Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry, ed. R. Weitzer (2010, 2nd edn.); E. Jost, 'Making it Mainstream: Sexworkers as Characters' Spread Magazine, Winter
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    • 'Trafficking in Women and Children: A Market Perspective' in Illegal Immigration and Commercial Sex, ed. P. Williams
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    • Goode and Ben-Yehuda, op. cit.
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    • 77953181283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Human Trafficking Evokes Outrage, Little Evidence'Washington Post, 23 September 2007. Strikingly similar to developments in the United States on the trafficking front, as described in this section of the article, is the British situation, which has also been coloured by moral panic and gross distortion of figures on the magnitude of trafficking. See
    • J. Markon, 'Human Trafficking Evokes Outrage, Little Evidence'Washington Post, 23 September 2007. Strikingly similar to developments in the United States on the trafficking front, as described in this section of the article, is the British situation, which has also been coloured by moral panic and gross distortion of figures on the magnitude of trafficking. See N. Davies, 'Prostitution and Trafficking: The Anatomy of a Moral Panic' Guardian, 20 October 2009.
    • Markon, J.1
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    • TVPA 2000, s. 102(b1).
    • TVPA 2000, s. 102(b1).
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    • General Accountability Office, Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Anti-trafficking Efforts Abroad
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    • (2006)
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    • (2005) , pp. 4
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    • US Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, 2008
    • US Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, 2008 (2009).
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    • Deputy Director of the Polaris Project, quoted in J. Iwasaki, 'Human Trafficking Increasing Worldwide'eattle Post-Intelligencer, 4 August
    • Bradley Myles, Deputy Director of the Polaris Project, quoted in J. Iwasaki, 'Human Trafficking Increasing Worldwide'eattle Post-Intelligencer, 4 August 2008.
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    • 77953188539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Organization for Migration, Second Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South-Eastern Europe (2005) 12. The numbers were 1,329 in 2003 and 1,227 in 2004.
    • International Organization for Migration, Second Annual Report on Victims of Trafficking in South-Eastern Europe (2005) 12. The numbers were 1,329 in 2003 and 1,227 in 2004.
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    • Tony Fratto, quoted in Markon, op. cit.
    • Tony Fratto, quoted in Markon, op. cit., n. 11.
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    • see, also, the identical findings in T. Steinfatt, Measuring the Number of Trafficked Women and Children in Cambodia
    • see, also, the identical findings in T. Steinfatt, Measuring the Number of Trafficked Women and Children in Cambodia (2003) 23-4.
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    • 'Loose Women or Lost Women? The Re-emergence of the Myth of White Slavery in Contemporary Discourses of Trafficking in Women'
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    • Steinfatt, op. cit., n. 27, p. 24.
    • Steinfatt, op. cit., n. 27, p. 24.
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    • Female Sexual Slavery
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    • 'Prostitution on Demand: Legalizing the Buyers as Sexual Consumers' (2004) 10 Violence Against Women
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    • Available at:
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    • Lederer, quoted in B. Jones, 'Trafficking Cops' World Magazine, 15 June 2002. Lederer was a leader in the anti-porn movement in the 1980s. Between 2001 and 2009, she was a senior advisor in the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons office. In 2009, she became Vice-president of Global Centurion, an organization fighting sex trafficking.
    • Lederer, quoted in B. Jones, 'Trafficking Cops' World Magazine, 15 June 2002. Lederer was a leader in the anti-porn movement in the 1980s. Between 2001 and 2009, she was a senior advisor in the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons office. In 2009, she became Vice-president of Global Centurion, an organization fighting sex trafficking.
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    • A Crime So Monstrous: Face-to-Face with Modern-Day Slavery
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    • The Links between Prostitution and Sex Trafficking: A Briefing Handbook, CATW and European Women's Lobby
    • See, for example, M. O'Connor and G. Healy, The Links between Prostitution and Sex Trafficking: A Briefing Handbook, CATW and European Women's Lobby (2006)
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    • the article by CATW co-director Dorchen Leidholdt, 'Prostitution and Trafficking in Women: An Intimate Relationship'
    • see, also, the article by CATW co-director Dorchen Leidholdt, 'Prostitution and Trafficking in Women: An Intimate Relationship' (2004) 2 J. of Trauma Practice 167.
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    • 'Wolves in Sheep's Clothing: No Way to End Sex Trafficking' National Review Online, 9 October
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    • US Department of State, 'The Link between Prostitution and Sex Trafficking' (2004) 1, available at
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    • Gunilla Ekberg is now the co-executive director of CATW-International and is based in Brussels. Previously she was active in the successful campaign to criminalize clients in Sweden.
    • Gunilla Ekberg is now the co-executive director of CATW-International and is based in Brussels. Previously she was active in the successful campaign to criminalize clients in Sweden.
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    • Skinner (op. cit., n. 37, p. 283) writes: But privately, Justice Department officials who actually dealt with victims were galled that the coalition expected them to find moral equivalency in the victimization of a $90,000-dollar-a-year call girl in Georgetown, who kept her own income and worked for herself, and a fourteen-year-old girl, raped fifteen times a day in a fetid trailer in a migrant labor camp.
    • Skinner (op. cit., n. 37, p. 283) writes: But privately, Justice Department officials who actually dealt with victims were galled that the coalition expected them to find moral equivalency in the victimization of a $90,000-dollar-a-year call girl in Georgetown, who kept her own income and worked for herself, and a fourteen-year-old girl, raped fifteen times a day in a fetid trailer in a migrant labor camp.
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    • Cohen, op. cit., n. 7.
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    • quoted in A. Brown, 'Sex Industry in Scotland: Inside the Deluded Minds of the Punters' Daily Record, 28 April 2008
    • Melissa Farley, quoted in A. Brown, 'Sex Industry in Scotland: Inside the Deluded Minds of the Punters' Daily Record, 28 April 2008.
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    • TVPRA 2005, s. 204(1b, 1c)
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    • Note
    • A letter from the Justice Department's Office of Legislative Affairs to Rep. James Sensenbrenner, chair of the Judiciary Committee in the House of Representatives (dated 24 September 2003), accepted that the government had the right to prohibit organizations from using government funds to promote prostitution, but opposed the prohibition on providing grants to organizations if they used separate, nongovernment money in support of prostitution: There is substantial doubt as to whether the Federal Government may restrict a domestic grant recipient participating in a Federal anti-trafficking program from using its own private, segregated funds to promote, support, or advocate the legalization or practice of prostitution. We believe that there is serious doubt as to whether that provision [in TVPRA 2003] would survive judicial scrutiny if challenged in court. In particular, we note that the prohibition on grant recipients using their own private, segregated funds to promote the legalization of prostitution, as opposed to the practice of prostitution, would be particularly vulnerable to legal challenge. Because of these 'serious First Amendment concerns,' the Justice Department recommended that this provision be deleted from the Bill.
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    • See the critiques of Farley's previous work in Weitzer, op. cit., n. 8.
    • See the critiques of Farley's previous work in Weitzer, op. cit., n. 8.
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    • Prostitution and Trafficking in Nevada: Making the Connections (2007) 118, 119. Emphasis added.
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    • Brents, B.1    Hausbeck, K.2
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    • Farley, op. cit., n. 67
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    • US Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report (annual publication).
    • US Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report (annual publication).
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    • Transcrime, Study on National Legislation on Prostitution and the Trafficking in Women and Children, Report to the European Parliament (2005) 121. There has also been an overall decrease in prostitution establishments (brothels, window units) since legalization in 2000 due to increased government monitoring.
    • Transcrime, Study on National Legislation on Prostitution and the Trafficking in Women and Children, Report to the European Parliament (2005) 121. There has also been an overall decrease in prostitution establishments (brothels, window units) since legalization in 2000 due to increased government monitoring.
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    • 'Debt Bondage and Trafficking' in Global Sex Workers, eds. K. Kempadoo and J. Doezema
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    • (1998) , pp. 60
    • Murray, A.1
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    • 'Introduction: Globalizing Sex Workers' Rights' in Kempadoo and Doezema
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    • The evidence for this is reviewed in Weitzer, op. cit., n. 8.
    • The evidence for this is reviewed in Weitzer, op. cit., n. 8.
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    • Hughes, op. cit., n. 40
    • Hughes, op. cit., n. 40, p. 2.
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    • TWA 2000, s. 103(3); TVPRA 2005, s. 207(3).
    • TWA 2000, s. 103(3); TVPRA 2005, s. 207(3).
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    • TVPRA 2005, s. 201a.
    • TVPRA 2005, s. 201a.
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    • Hughes, op. cit., n. 47. Hughes received $108,478 from the State Department to write this report: Attorney General, Report to Congress on U.S. Government Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons in Fiscal Year 2004 (2005).
    • Hughes, op. cit., n. 47. Hughes received $108,478 from the State Department to write this report: Attorney General, Report to Congress on U.S. Government Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons in Fiscal Year 2004 (2005).
  • 88
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    • Note
    • id., pp. 22, 26.
  • 89
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    • Note
    • id., p. 22.
  • 90
    • 77953182666 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, for example, the voluminous literature on Prohibition in the United States.
    • See, for example, the voluminous literature on Prohibition in the United States.
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    • 77953202433 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crime and Misconduct Commission, Regulating Prostitution: An Evaluation of the Prostitution Act 1999, Queensland (2004) xii; Prostitution Law Review Committee, Report of the Prostitution Law Review Committee on the Operation of the Prostitution Reform Act 2003
    • Crime and Misconduct Commission, Regulating Prostitution: An Evaluation of the Prostitution Act 1999, Queensland (2004) xii; Prostitution Law Review Committee, Report of the Prostitution Law Review Committee on the Operation of the Prostitution Reform Act 2003 (2008) 163-4.
    • (2008) , pp. 163-4
  • 92
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    • a leader of Australia's branch of CATW, claims that organized crime is 'inherent' whether prostitution is illegal or legal. M. Sullivan, What Happens when Prostitution Becomes Work? An Update on Legalization of Prostitution in Australia
    • Mary Sullivan, a leader of Australia's branch of CATW, claims that organized crime is 'inherent' whether prostitution is illegal or legal. M. Sullivan, What Happens when Prostitution Becomes Work? An Update on Legalization of Prostitution in Australia (2005) 4.
    • (2005) , pp. 4
    • Sullivan, M.1
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  • 94
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    • id.
    • id., p. 999.
  • 95
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    • Public Broadcasting Service, 'American Porn', Frontline television series
    • Public Broadcasting Service, 'American Porn', Frontline television series (2006).
    • (2006)
  • 96
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    • 'DOJ Releases List of "Obscenity Prosecutions During This Administration"', Concerned Women for America
    • J. LaRue, 'DOJ Releases List of "Obscenity Prosecutions During This Administration"', Concerned Women for America, , 18 December 2003.
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    • 'Justice Department Sets Sights on Mainstream Porn' Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 11 April 2004
    • 'Justice Department Sets Sights on Mainstream Porn' Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 11 April 2004.
  • 98
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    • 'Appointment of New U.S. Attorney General and Other Matters Regarding Vigorous Enforcement of Federal Obscenity Laws', 10 September 2007
    • 'Appointment of New U.S. Attorney General and Other Matters Regarding Vigorous Enforcement of Federal Obscenity Laws', 10 September 2007. . The letter was signed by, among others, Donna Hughes, Patrick Trueman, Morality in Media, Family Research Council, Concerned Women for America, Focus on the Family, American Family Association, American Decency Association, and Citizens for Community Values.
  • 99
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    • Testimony, US Senate Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Property Rights, Hearing on Obscenity Prosecution, 16 March 2005.
    • P. Trueman, Testimony, US Senate Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Property Rights, Hearing on Obscenity Prosecution, 16 March 2005.
    • Trueman, P.1
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    • Hughes, op. cit., n. 47
    • Hughes, op. cit., n. 47, p. 26.
  • 101
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    • Robert Peters, quoted in G. Beato, 'Xtreme Measures: Washington's New Crackdown on Pornography' ReasonOnline, May 2004
    • Robert Peters, quoted in G. Beato, 'Xtreme Measures: Washington's New Crackdown on Pornography' ReasonOnline, May 2004.
  • 102
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    • This is in contrast to Britain, where recent legislation targets 'extreme pornography'. See F. Attwood and C. Smith, 'Extreme Concern', this volume
    • This is in contrast to Britain, where recent legislation targets 'extreme pornography'. See F. Attwood and C. Smith, 'Extreme Concern', this volume, pp. 171-88.
  • 103
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    • 'U.S. Attorney's Porn Fight Gets Bad Reviews' Daily Business Rev., 30 August 2005
    • 'U.S. Attorney's Porn Fight Gets Bad Reviews' Daily Business Rev., 30 August 2005.
  • 104
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    • US Department of Justice, 'Obscenity Prosecution Task Force Established to Investigate, Prosecute Purveyors of Obscene Materials', Press Release, 5 May 2005; R. Schmitt, 'U.S. Cracking Down on Porn' Deseret News, 15 February 2004
    • US Department of Justice, 'Obscenity Prosecution Task Force Established to Investigate, Prosecute Purveyors of Obscene Materials', Press Release, 5 May 2005; R. Schmitt, 'U.S. Cracking Down on Porn' Deseret News, 15 February 2004.
  • 105
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    • 'Nation's Porn Prosecutor Fronts War against Obscenity' Salt Lake Tribune, 26 February 2007.
    • 'Nation's Porn Prosecutor Fronts War against Obscenity' Salt Lake Tribune, 26 February 2007.
  • 106
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    • Schmitt, op. cit., n. 100.
    • Schmitt, op. cit., n. 100.
  • 107
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    • 'Porn Industry Moans for Good Reason' at, 24 February 2004.
    • 'Porn Industry Moans for Good Reason' at , 24 February 2004.
  • 108
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    • 'Outsourcing Justice? That's Obscene' Washington Post, 15 July 2007.
    • 'Outsourcing Justice? That's Obscene' Washington Post, 15 July 2007.
  • 109
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    • 'Federal Effort on Web Obscenity Shows Few Results' New York Times, 10 August 2007.
    • 'Federal Effort on Web Obscenity Shows Few Results' New York Times, 10 August 2007.
  • 110
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    • 'Bush Administration Stepping Up Obscenity Prosecutions' USA Today, 4 May 2005.
    • 'Bush Administration Stepping Up Obscenity Prosecutions' USA Today, 4 May 2005.
  • 111
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    • quoted in W. Laugesen, 'Pornography Crackdown' National Catholic Register, 22 April 2007
    • Patrick Trueman, quoted in W. Laugesen, 'Pornography Crackdown' National Catholic Register, 22 April 2007.
    • Trueman, P.1
  • 112
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    • 'Porn Prosecution Fuels Debate' Politico, 31 July 2009.
    • 'Porn Prosecution Fuels Debate' Politico, 31 July 2009.
  • 113
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    • Letter from Alliance Defense Fund to Attorney General Eric Holder, 15 July 2009.
    • Letter from Alliance Defense Fund to Attorney General Eric Holder, 15 July 2009.
  • 114
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    • Weitzer, op. cit., n. 8.
    • Weitzer, op. cit., n. 8.


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.