"A Guantánamo on the sea": The difficulty of prosecuting pirates and terrorists

California Law Review

Volumn 98, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 243-275

  Kontorovich, Eugene ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 77952715789     PISSN: 00081221     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (324)

1. See Germany Calls for International Court to Prosecute Pirates, FOXNEWS.COM, Dec. 23, 2008, http.//www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,471804,00.html (explaining why nations today are reluctant to act against pirates).
2. Jeffrey Gettleman, Pirates Outmaneuver Warships off Somalia, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 15, 2008, at A6 ("Even if foreign navies nab some members of his crew, Mr. Jama said, he is not worried. He said his men would probably get no more punishment than a free ride back to the beach.").
3. In 2008, the International Maritime Bureau of the International Chamber of Commerce reported an "unprecedented" wave of piracy in the Gulf of Aden, with 111 recorded attacks. See ICC Commercial Crime Services, 1MB Reports Unprecedented Rise in Maritime Hijackings, Jan. 16, 2009, http://www.icc-ccs. org/index.php?option=com-content&view=article&id=332: imbrepor-unprecedented-rise-in-maritime-mjackings&catid=60:news&Itemid= 51.
4. Mike Pfanz, Somali Pirate Attacks "Set to Increase" as Monsoon Eases, TELEGRAPH (U.K.), July 27, 2009.
5. See S.C Res. 1816, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1816 (June 2, 2008);
6. S.C Res. 1838, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1838 (Oct 7, 2008);
7. S.C. Res. 1844, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1844 (Nov. 20, 2008);
8. S.C. Res. 1846, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1846 (Dec. 2, 2008);
9. S.C. Res. 1851, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1851 (Dec. 16, 2008).
10. See, e.g., Douglas R. Burgess, Jr., Op-Ed., Piracy Is Terrorism, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 5, 2008, at A33 (observing that the question whether "the Somali pirates [are] ordinary criminals, or a quasi-military force.... has virtually paralyzed the navies called to police the Gulf of Aden").
11. NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL, COUNTERING PIRACY OFF THE HORN OF AFRICA: PARTNERSHIP & ACTION PLAN 12 (2008) [hereinafter "COUNTERING PIRACY"].
12. The high seas are all parts of the sea not included in states' internal waters or territorial waters, which extend out 12 nautical miles, and the exclusive economic zone, which extends out 200 miles. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea arts. 3, 56(1), Dec. 10, 1982, 1833 U.N.T.S. 397, 400, 418 [hereinafter UNCLOS]. For purposes relevant to piracy, the high seas regime applies to the exclusive economic zone as well.
13. See id. ait. 56(1) (describing limited sovereign rights to natural resources in EEZ), art. 58(2).
14. See, e.g., John Helmer, Navies Stumped over Pirates off Somalia, Bus. DAY, June 3, 2009, available at http://www.businessday.co.za/articles/Content. aspx?id=72374 (describing Russia's unwillingness to use its universal jurisdiction statute against captured Somali pirates).
15. Bent Mikkelsen, Pirates Keep the Absalon Busy, SHIPPING GAZETTE, NOV. 21, 2008, available at http://www.shipgaz.com/old/magazine/issues/2008/22/article2. php;
16. Jeffrey Gettleman, Somalia's Pirates Flourish in a Lawless Nation, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 31, 2008, at Al;
17. .see also UNCLOS, supra note 8, art. 98(1)(a)-(b).
18. See Gettleman, supra note 10;
19. Justin Stares, Pirates Protected from EU Task Force by Human Rights, TELEGRAPH (London), Nov. 19, 2008;
20. Marie Woolf, Pirates Can Claim UK Asylum, TIMES ONLINE, Apr. 13, 2008, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/ article3736239.ece.
21. See Jamal Osma, 'We Are Hungry. There Is No Government, No Economy, So It Is a Good Way to Earn Money', TIMES (London), Dec. 12, 2008, at 54 ("Pirates are usually in their twenties, illiterate, attracted by the prospect of a lucrative life and are prepared to get rich or die trying.").
22. Jeffrey Gettleman, Somali Pirates Tell Their Side: They Want Only Money, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 30, 2008, at A6.
23. See Pfanz, supra note 4.
24. See Press Release, Security Council, Security Council Authorizes States to Use LandBased Operations in Somalia, as Part of Fight Against Piracy off Coast Unanimously Adopting 1851, U.N. Doc. SC/9541 (Dec. 16, 2008) [hereinafter S.C. Res. 1851 Press Release] (statement of U.S. Sec'y of State Condoleezza Rice).
25. Id.
26. See Jim Garamone, Mullen Shocked by Pirate Attack on Supertanker, AM. FORCES PRESS SERVICE, DEP'T OF DEF., NOV. 17, 2008, http://www.defenselink.mil/ news/ newsarticle.aspx?id=51972
27. (quoting the Chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff: "One of the challenges that... you have in piracy clearly is, if you are intervening and you capture pirates, is there a path to prosecute them?");
28. Nicolas Kulish, Legal Hurdles in West Slow Pursuit of Pirates, N.Y. TIMES, NOV. 29, 2008, at A8. In the same vein, Denmark, a leading maritime nation, said at a U.N. meeting, that dealing with the pirates required "further deliberations on issues with regard to detention and prosecution of pirates" and stressed the need for a "clear legal infrastructure, both for extradition and prosecution of perpetrators."
29. See DANISH MARITIME AUTHORITY, REPORT ON THE IOIST SESSION OF THE INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION (NOV. 20, 2008), available at http://www.dma.dk/news/Sider/ SessionwithDanishimprintheldinUN%E2%80%99%sInternationalMaritimeOrganization(10 1stsessionoftheCouncil).aspx.
30. Daphne Eviatar, 9/11 Masterminds Could Face Trial in Federal Court, WASH. INDEP., Oct. 21, 2009, available at http://waslingtonindependent.com/64590/911- masterminds-could-face-trial-in-federal-court; .
31. see also Jack L. Goldsmith & Neal Katyal, Op-Ed., The Terrorists' Court, N.Y. TIMES, July 11, 2007, at A19.
32. Obama Plans U.S. Terror Trials to Replace Guantanamo Prisons, USA TODAY, NOV. 11, 2008, available at http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-11-11- obamaguantanamo-N.htm.
33. See, e.g., United States v. Yousef, 327 F.3d 56, 97 (2d Cir. 2003) ("We ... further hold that customary international law currently does not provide for the prosecution of 'terrorist' acts under the universality principle, in part due to the failure of States to achieve anything like consensus on the definition of terrorism.").
34. See S.C. Res. 1846, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1846 (Dec. 2, 2008);
35. S.C. Res. 1851, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1851 (Dec. 16, 2008) (noting the Somali government's approval of the international antipiracy effort contemplated by the resolutions).
36. See S.C. Res. 1816, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1816 (June 2, 2008);
37. S.C. Res. 1838, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1838 (Oct 7, 2008);
38. S.C. Res. 1844, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1844 (Nov. 20, 2008);
39. S.C. Res. 1846, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1846 (Dec. 2, 2008);
40. S.C. Res. 1851, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1851 (Dec. 16, 2008).
41. See United Nations Security Council Resolutions 2008, available at http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc-resolutions08.htm.
42. See Guantanamo Issue Looms Large for Europe, DEUTSCHE WELLE, Feb. 27, 2009, http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,4059693,00.html ("Many European countries are deeply concerned about having people who pose a potential security risk at large.");
43. Judy Dempsey & Stephen Castle, EU Nations Divided On Taking Guantanamo Detainees, INT'L HERALD TRIB., Jan. 22, 2009, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/world/europe/22iht-germany.4.1 9609842.html;
44. Peter Finn, Administration Makes Progress on Resettling Detainees, WASH. POST, Aug. 20, 2009, at A3 (reporting that Uighur detainees have been transferred to Bermuda and Palau, but not to European nations);
45. Robert Marquand, Closing Guantanamo: Will Europeans Take Detainees?, CHRISTIAN Sa. MONITOR, Jan. 23, 2009, at 5.
46. See Rory Carroll, Charles Taylor Flown to the Hague to Face War Crimes Trial, GUARDIAN (London), June 21, 2006, at 23.
47. This Essay does not advocate any alternative approach to either piracy or transnational terror, but rather seeks explain the nature of the legal obstacles common to both.
48. Jeffrey Gettleman, Somali Pirates Capture Tanks and Unwanted Global Notice, N.Y. TIMES, Sept 27, 2008, at Al.
49. Xan Rice, Pirates Anchor Hijacked Supertanker off Somalia Coast, GUARDIAN (London), Nov. 18, 2008, available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/nov/ 18/somalia-oil.
50. Philippine Tanker Hijacked By Pirates, N.Y. TIMES, NOV. 11, 2008, at A14.
51. Jeevan Vasagar, Pirates Hijack Tsunami Aid Ship, GUARDIAN UNLIMITED, July 1, 2005, http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2005/jul/01/ internationalaidanddevelopment.internationalnews.
52. U.S. Crube Ship Escapes Fire from Pirates in Gulf of Aden, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 2, 2008, atA14.
53. Mark Mazzetti & Sharon Otterman, U.S. Captain Is Hostage of Pirates; Navy Ship Arrives, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 9, 2009, at A6.
54. See, e.g., INT'L CHAMBER OF COMMERCE COMMERCIAL CRIME SERVS., PIRATE ATTACKS OFF SOMALIA ALREADY SURPASS 2008 FIGURES (2009), available at http://www.icc-ccs.org/index.php?option=com-content&view=aticle&id=352: pirate-attacks-off-somalia-alreadysurpass-2008-figures&catid=60: news&Itemid=51.
55. See Gettleman, supra note 10.
56. Peter Lehr & Hendrick Lehmann, Somalia - Pirates' New Paradise, in VIOLENCE AT SEA: PIRACY IN THE AGE OF GLOBAL TERRORISM 1-3, 16 (Peter Lehr ed., 2007).
57. Roughly 111 ships were attacked in 2008. INT'L CHAMBER OF COMMERCE COMMERCIAL CRIME SERVS., supra note 33.
58. The Sirius Star, a Liberian-flagged oil tanker hijacked in November 2008, was on its way around the Cape of Good Hope-not through the Suez Canal-when it was hijacked more than 450 nautical miles from shore. Robert F. Worth, Pirates Seize Saudi Tanker off Kenya, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 18, 2008, at A6.
59. Gregory Viscusi, Somali Piracy to Pick Up After Monsoon, Task Force Chief Says, BLOOMBERG, July 27, 2009, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid= 20601100&sid= aDZfefl5fcpM (noting that twenty-eight of the attacks succeeded in seizing a ship);
60. Pfanz, supra note 4.
61. See Press Release, U.N. Political Office for Somalia, Somalia: SRSG Statement on Piracy (Sept. 29, 2008), available at http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/ rwb.nsf/db900SID/VDUX7JXLA7?OpenDocument.
62. Jamey Keaten, Developed Countries Push Back vs. Pirates, ASSOCIATED PRESS, Oct. 4, 2008, available at http.//www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/10/04/ europe/EU-BattlingPiracy.php?page =1.
63. See John Patch, The Overstated Threat, U.S. NAV. INST. PROCEEDINGS, Dec. 2008, at 34-39.
64. Jeffery Gettleman & Mohammed Ibrahim, Somali Pirates Get Ransom and Leave Arms Freighter, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 6, 2009, at A6.
65. See S.C. Res. 1851, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1851 (Dec. 16, 2008). Chapter VII of the U.N. Charter allows the Security Council to respond to threats to international peace by a variety of means, including authorizing military force.
66. See U.N. Charter arts. 39,41-42. Concerns raised by other Council members led the United States to withdraw draft language referring to operations in Somali "airspace," though the United States maintained that the resolution still permitted entry into Somali airspace for bombing and missile strikes.
67. See U.S. Says Piracy Resolution Allows for Air Strikes in Somalia, AGENCE FRANCE PRESS, Dec. 17, 2008, http://www.infowars.com/us-sayspiracy-resolution- allows-for-air-strikes-in-somalia/.
68. See, e.g., PETER EARLE, THE PIRATE WARS 237-245 (2003) (explaining that, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Britain and the United States were unable to stamp out Caribbean pirates because, among other things, they lacked Spanish permission to seek out landbased hideouts in Cuba and other islands).
69. Keaten, supra note 40.
70. Xan Rice, U.S. Launches Anti-Piracy Naval Force to Combat Hijackings off Somalia, GUARDIAN UNLIMITED, Jan. 9, 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/ jan/09/piracysomalia-us-navy.
71. Richard Norton-Taylor, British Warship to Lead EU Armada into Gulf of Aden, GUARDIAN (London), Nov. 20, 2008, at 29.
72. Viscusi, supra note 38.
73. Mark McDonald, Chinese Warships Sail, Loaded for Pirates, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 26, 2008, at A6.
74. BBC News, The Suez Crisis: Key Maps, July 21, 2006, http://news.bbc.co. uk/ 2/hi/middle-east/5195068.stm ("About 7.5% of world sea trade is carried via the canal today.");
75. Somali Pirates Risk Choking Key World Trade Route, REUTERS, Apr. 15, 2009, available at http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE53E2JR20090415 ("Around 30% of Europe's oil goes through the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea.").
76. Nick Wadhams, As Somali Pirates Get Bolder, Policing Them Gets Tougher, TIME.COM, Nov. 19, 2008, http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1860404, 00.html.
77. S.C. Res. 1851 Press Release, supra note 15 (statement of Russian Minister for Foreign Affairs Sergei Lavrov).
78. Id. (statement of U.S. Sec'y of State Condoleezza Rice).
79. International Piracy on the High Seas: Hearing Before the H. Subcomm. on Coast Guard & Maritime Transportation, 111th Cong. (2009) (statement of Rear Admiral William Baumgartaer) [hereinafter Baumgartner Statement].
80. World Pirate Attacks More Than Double This Year, SEATTLETIMES.COM, July 15, 2009, http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2009472715- apaspiracyworldattacks. html. As of this writing, pirates continued to hold nearly 200 crewmembers from 11 vessels.
81. Lori Johnston, Q & A on the News, ATLANTA J.-CONST., July 21, 2009, at 2 A.
82. See, e.g., Gettleman, supra note 10;
83. Jason Keyser, Guarded Shipping Corridor Limiting Somali Piracy, ASSOCIATED PRESS, NOV. 10, 2008, available at http://www.usatoday.com/news/ world/2008-11-10-3512568313-x.htm (reporting that sixty pirates have been released since October 2008 alone "because no country has been willing to bring them to trial");
84. Mikkelsen, supra note 10.
85. France Raid Ship After Crew Freed, BBC NEWS, Apr. 12, 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/ 2/hi/africa/7342292.stm.
86. Bruno Waterfield, Somali Pirates Embrace Capture as Route to Europe, TELEGRAPH (U.K.), May 19, 2009, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/ piracy/5350183/Somalipirates-embrace-capture-as-route-to-Europe.html. The Danish Navy captured and held the suspects, but Denmark would not exercise universal jurisdiction over piracy.
87. Sebastiaan Gottlieb, The Dutch Want Pirates in Court, RADIO NETHERLANDS, Jan. 16, 2009, http://www.radionetherlands.nl/currentaffairs/090116-piracy- trial.
88. Joseph Goldstein, Maktn' 'em Walk the Plank, A.B.A. J., July 2009, at 16-17. The United States charged the alleged pirate with additional attacks against other, unidentified but presumably non-American vessels.
89. See Benjamin Weiser, Somali Man Is Charged in 2 More Ship Hijackings, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 12, 2010, at A26. Given the existing charges of piracy against an American vessel, the additional charges can be thought of as "pendent" or "supplemental" universal jurisdiction, rather than naked universal jurisdiction.
90. See, e.g., Eugene Kontorovich, The "Define and Punbh " Clause and the Limits of Universal Jurbdiction, 103 Nw. U. L. REV. 149, 180 (2009) (explaining unusual American piracy prosecution from the 1790s as a possible example of pendent universal jurisdiction).
91. S.C. Res. 1851 Press Release, supra note 15 (statement of U.S. Sec'y of State Condoleezza Rice) (observing that international treaties gave "sufficient legal authority with which to apprehend and prosecute pirates, but that political will and capacity was often lacking").
92. See EDWARD COKE, 3 INSTITUTES ON THE LAWS OF ENGLAND 113 (1797);
93. LASSA OPPENHEIM, INTERNATIONAL LAW: A TREATISE § 272, at 325-26 (1905);
94. see also RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF FOREIGN RELATIONS LAW OF THE UNITED STATES § 34 cmt. b (1965).
95. See generally Eugene Kontorovich, Implementing Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain: What Piracy Teaches About the Limits of the Alien Tort Statute, 80 NOTRE DAME L. REV. Ill, 139-153 (2004) (explaining the reasons that piracy was a universal jurisdiction offense).
96. See, e.g., United States v. Yousef, 327 F.3d 56, 104 (2d Cir. 2003) (observing that piracy has long been subject to universal jurisdiction in part "because of the threat that piracy poses to orderly transport and commerce between nations").
97. For example, the November 2008 hijacking of a Saudi Oil tanker that held two million barrels of oil (more than one quarter of Saudi Arabia's daily exports) helped to raise global oil prices more man one dollar, to fifty-eight dollars a barrel. See Raissa Kaslowsky & Simon Webb, Somali Pirates Seize Saudi Tanker Carrying $100 Million in Oil, WASH. POST, NOV. 17, 2008, at A24.
98. Id. ("A single piratical attack often affects the interests of numerous countries, including the flag State of the vessel, various States of nationality of the seafarers taken hostage, regional coastal States, owner States, and cargo owner, transshipment and destination States.").
99. Kenneth C Randall, Universal Jurisdiction Under International Law, 66 TEX. L. REV. 785, 793 (1988).
100. See Eugene Kontorovich, The Piracy Analogy: Modern Universal Jurisdiction's Hollow Foundation, 45 HARV. INT'L L.J. 183, 184, 197-207 (2004).
101. See, e.g., Edward Wong, China Protests U.S. Rights Suit Against a Leader, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 5, 2000, at A4.
102. UNCLOS, supra note 8, art. 105. For the comprehensive list of ratifications,
103. see http://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference-files/clronological-lists-of- ratifications.htm#The%20 United%20Nations%20Convention%20on%20the%20Law%20of%20the%20Sea.
104. Id. art. 101(a). While the United States has not ratified the third and most recent version of UNCLOS, it is party to an earlier incarnation with identical piracy provisions.
105. See Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone, Apr. 29, 1958, 516 U.N.T.S. 205.
106. See, e.g., United States v. Furlong, 618 U.S. (5 Wheat.) 184 (1820).
107. See Report of the International Law Commbsion to the General Assembly, 11 GAOR Supp. (No.9) at art. 38 cmt 2, U.N. Doc. A/3159 (1956),
108. reprinted in [1956] 2 Y.B. Int'l Comm'n 253, at 282, A/CN.4/SER.A/1956/ Add.l [hereinafter REPORT OF THE INT'L LAW COMM'N].
109. See id. art 38 cmt. 1, at 282;
110. see also Harvard Research in Int'l Law, Draft Convention and Comment on Piracy, 26 AM. J. INT'L L. 739 (Supp. 1932) [hereinafter Harvard Draft Convention].
111. See Tullio Treves, Piracy, Law of the Sea, and Use of Force: Developments off the Coast of Somalia, 30 EUR. J. INT'L L. 399, 408 (2009);
112. NATO PARLIAMENTARY ASSEMBLY, THE GROWING THREAT OF PRIVACY TO REGIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY, 169 CDS 09 E ¶ 37 (2009), available at http://www.nato-pa.int/default.asp?SHORTCUT=1770.
113. For other potential complications related to UNCLOS, see infra notes 111, 206-210 and accompanying text.
114. UNCLOS, supra note 8, art. 3;
115. see MARK W. JANIS, AN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL LAW 216-222 (describing transition from three- to twelve-mile seas).
116. Martin Murphy, Piracy and UNCLOS: Does International Law Help Regional States Combat Piracy?, in VIOLENCE AT SEA: PIRACY IN THE AGE OF GLOBAL TERRORISM 161-163 (Peter Lehr ed., 2007).
117. Two of the leading piracy problem areas are the Gulf of Aden (located in the Arabian Sea between Somalia and Yemen) and the Straits of Malacca (in the Indian Ocean between Malaysia and Singapore), both chokepoints for international shipping. See DEP'T OF ENERGY, ENERGY INFO. ADMIN., COUNTRY ANALYSIS BRIEFS: WORLD OIL TRANSIT CHOKEPOINTS (Jan. 2008), available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/ cabs/World-Oil-Transit-Chokepoints/Full.html (listing both the Strait of Malacca and Bab el Mandeb, the narrow strait separating the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, as "world oil transit chokepoints").
118. S.C. Res. 1816, art. 7, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1816 (June 2, 2008).
119. -27 I.L.M. 668 (1988), entered into force 1992 (also known as the "Rome Convention"). The treaty was enacted in response to the Achille Lauro hijacking of 1985, in which Palestinian terrorists hijacked an Italian cruise liner, having come on board as passengers.
120. See Malvina Halberstam, Terrorism on the High Seas: The Achille Lauro, Piracy and the IMO Convention on Maritime Safety, 82 AM. J. INT'L L. 269, 270-72 (1988).
121. See Int'l Maritime Org., Summary of Status of Convention: As of 31 January 2010, http://www.imo.org/Conventions/mainframe.asp?topic-id=247.
122. See, e.g., Sec. Res. 1846, ¶ 15, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1846 (Dec. 2, 2008).
123. See United States v. Shi, 525 F.3d 709 (9th Cir. 2008);
124. see also Eugene Kontorovich, International Decisions-United States v. Shi, 525 F.3d 709, 103 AM. J. INT'L. L. 734 (2009).
125. -27 I.L.M. 668 art 6(4).
126. Id. art. 3(a).
127. Id. art 6(2)(b).
128. See id. art. 4.
129. SUA also explicitly gives jurisdiction over covered offenses to all signatory nations, regardless of the nationality of the vessels involved. See id. art. 6(4).
130. See also infra notes 207-219 and accompanying text.
131. See Treves, supra note 74, at 408;
132. NATO PARLIAMENTARY ASSEMBLY, supra note 74 169 CDS 09 E ¶ 37 (2009).
133. UNCLOS, supra note 8, art. 100.
134. Michael Bahar, Attaining Optimal Deterrence at Sea: A Legal and Strategic Theory for Naval Anti-Piracy Operations, 40 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 1, 36 (2007).
135. See id.;
136. James Kráska & Brian Wilson, Fighting Pirates: The Pen and the Sword, WORLD POL'Y J., Winter 2008, at 46-47 (noting pirates received seven-year sentences).
137. Foreign & Commonwealth Office (U.K), Prisoner Transfer Agreements, http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/global-issues/conflict-prevention/piracy/acks.
138. David Morgan, U.S. Delivers Seven Somali Pirate Suspects to Kenya, REUTERS, Mar. 5, 2009, http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/ idUSTRE52480N20090305.
139. See Catherine Philp, Captured Somali Pirates Are Being Dumped in Kenya, Officiab Say, TIMES (London), June 12, 2009, at 41;
140. see also Celestine Achieng, U.S. Navy Hands over 17 Pirates to Kenya, REUTERS, June 10, 2009, http://www.reuters.com/articIe/africaCrisis/ idUSLA1052558.
141. Jeffrey Gettleman, The West Turns to Kenya as Piracy Criminal Court, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 24, 2009, at A8.
142. James Butty, Kenyan Foreign Minbter Sheds Light on U.S.-Kenya Piracy Agreement, TURKISH WEEKLY, Jan. 28, 2009, available at http://www.turkishweekly. net/news/63755/kenyanforeign-minister-shed-light-on-u-s-kenya-piracy-agreement-. html (quoting Kenyan foreign minister as saying the Memorandum of Agreement with the United States is "not an open door for dumping pirates onto Kenya soil because it will not be acceptable").
143. Id.
144. James Thuo Gathii, Kenya Has No Duty to Try Pirates Arrested Elsewhere, Bus. DAILY (Nairobi), Apr. 15, 2009, available at http://multimedia. marsgroupkenya.org/?StoryID= 252749&page=3&p=Lari (noting that trying pirates in Kenyan courts will slow domestic trials, and describing Kenya's agreements with Western states as efforts by the latter to "offshore" their responsibilities for prosecuting pirates to Kenya).
145. Celestine Achieng, U.S. Navy Hands over 17 Pirates to Kenya, REUTERS, June 10, 2009, available at http://www.reuters.com/article/africaCrisis/ idUSLA1052558 (reporting on tensions with Kenyan Muslims caused by the prosecutions).
146. Barney Jopson, Kenya Signs Deal to Prosecute Somali Pirates, FIN. TIMES, Dec. 12, 2008, available at http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/9b63b8e6-c7c4-11dd-b611- 000077b07658.html? nclick-check=1.
147. Elizabeth Pineau, France Asks Seychelles to Help with Pirate Trials, REUTERS, Oct 18, 2009, available at http://www.reuters.com/article/africaCrisis/ idUSLI622681.
148. Kim Sengupta, Is Seychelles Turning a Blind Eye to Pirates?, Oct. 28, 2009, INDEPENDENT (London), at 2;
149. J.E. Dyer, They Sell Pirates in the Seychelles, CONTENTIONS, http://www.commentarymagazine.com/blogs/index.php/j-e-dyer/139812.
150. See S.C. Res. 1851 Press Release, supra note 15 (statement of Danish Ambassador Carsten Staur);
151. id. (statement of U.S. Sec'y of State Condoleezza Rice);
152. Frank Gardner, How Do You Tackle Piracy?, BBC NEWS, Dec. 13, 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7782016.stm (reporting that U.S. and French officers at a conference on piracy called for creation of international court and prison for pirates);
153. Germany Calls for International Court to Prosecute Pirates, FOXNEWS.COM, Dec. 23, 2008, http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,471804,00.html;
154. David Osier, Russia Calls for a Piracy Court, LLOYD'S LIST, May 14, 2009, http://www.lloydslistdcn. com.au/archive/2009/may/weekly-edition-14th-of-may- 2009/russiacalls-for-a-piracy-court.
155. Currently, several former Bush administration officials face threats of prosecution for their decisions surrounding the classification and treatment of suspected terrorist detainees. See, e.g., Mark Benjamin, How to Build A Torture Commission, SALON.COM, Mar. 4, 2009, http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2009/03/ 04/torture-conimission/index.html;
156. Editorial, A Truth Commbsion for the Bush Era?, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 2, 2009, at A12;
157. Bobby Ghosh, Leahy's Plan to Probe Bush-Era Wrongdoings, TIME.COM, Feb. 17, 2009, http://www.time.com/time/ nation/article/0,8599,1879810,00.html. Their successors in office may be reluctant to take actions that redound principally to the benefit of international shipping if there is even a small chance that they may later be held criminally liable.
158. See COKE, supra note 61, at 113;
159. OPPENHEIM, supra note 61, § 272, at 325-326 (1905).
160. -4 WILLIAM BLACKSTONE, COMMENTARIES ON THE LAWS OF ENGLAND 71 (1838) ("As therefore he has renounced all the benefits of society and government and has reduced himself to the savage state of nature, by declaring war against all mankind, all mankind must declare war against him[.]");
161. OPPENHEIM, supra note 61, § 278, at 330.
162. See OPPENHEIM, supra note 61, § 278, at 330.
163. See Harvard Draft Convention, suqra note 73, at 853 (disagreeing with support for summary proceedings expressed in draft report by League of Nations committee of experts).
164. See Treves, supra note 74, at 412-13;
165. NATO Parliamentary Assembly, supra note 89, ¶ 40.
166. See Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War art. 3(1) (Third Geneva Convention), Aug. 12, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 135, 136 [hereinafter Common Article 2];
167. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts art. 13 (Protocol II), June 8, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609 (banning attacks on civilians); .
168. see also International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights art. 6(1)-(2), Mar. 23, 1976, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (prohibiting extrajudicial killing). While the Geneva Conventions do not necessarily apply to conflicts with pirates on the high seas, the minimal obligations of Common Article 3 are widely thought to be generally applicable to all uses of military force as a matter of customary law.
169. See UNCLOS,supra note 8, art. 105.
170. See supra note 43 and accompanying text; S.C. Res. 1851, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1851, ¶ 6 (Dec. 16, 2008).
171. Id.
172. Such charges have plagued the United States and Israel in their campaigns against terrorists. See, e.g., Laura Blumenfeld, In Israel, A Divbive Struggle over Targeted Killing, WASH. POST, Aug. 27,2006, at Al.
173. Id.
174. See, e.g., B'Tselem, Attacks on Israeli Civilians by Palestinians: Israel's Obligations in Responding to Rocket and Mortar Fire, http://www.btselem.org/english/Israeli-Civilians/ Israels-obligations.asp (last visited Jan. 20,2010).
175. See id.
176. Lolita C Baldor & Anne Gearan, Navy Commander Questions Land Attacks on Pirates, Assoc. PRESS, Dec. 13, 2008, available at http://abcnews.go.com/ Politics/ wireStory?id=6454447;
177. see also Frank Gardner, How Do You Tackle Piracy?, BBC NEWS, Dec. 13, 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7782016.stm (The United States "did not yet have enough intelligence on which individuals were involved to go after them without causing civilian casualties").
178. See Mark McDonald, Ship Sunk by Indian Navy Had Been Hijacked that Day, INT'L HERALD TRIBUNE, NOV. 27, 2008, at 2 (reporting that India claimed the frigate had been fired on by the pirates aboard the trawler).
179. See Third Geneva Convention, supra note 110,75 U.N.T.S. at 135.
180. See Harvard Draft Convention, supra note 108, at 764 (observing that current international law on piracy is "of little value" because "large scale piracy disappeared long ago").
181. See Third Geneva Convention art. 4(a)(2), supra note 110,75 U.N.T.S. at 138.
182. See, e.g., David Glazier, A Self-inflicted Wound: A Half-Dozen Years of Turmoil over the Guantanamo Military Commbsions, 12 LEWIS & CLARK L. REV. 131 (2008);
183. Stephen I. Vladeck, Congress, the Commander-in-Chief, and the Separation of Powers After Hamdan, 16 TRANSNAT'L L. & CONTEMP. PROBS. 933, 951 (2007).
184. See Bahar, supra note 91, at 36, 45-46 (2007) ("In the case of Somalia today . . . captured pirates would, and should, receive Geneva Conventions treatment, but they should also remain eligible for prosecutkm.").
185. See Gettleman, supra note 13.
186. Id.
187. See Third Geneva Convention art 4(A)(2)(c), supra note 110, 75 U.N.T.S. at 138 (affording POW status on basis of abiding by this and other conditions);
188. Michael H. Passman, Protections Afforded to Captured Pirates Under the Law of War and International Law, 33 TUL. MAR. L.J. 1,24 (2008).
189. See Third Geneva Convention art. 4(A)(2)(d), supra note 110,75 U.N.T.S. at 138.
190. See id. art 4(A)( 1 ) (discussing armed forces of a Party to the conflict).
191. Najad Abdullahi, 'Toxic Waste' Behind Somali Piracy, ALJAZEERA.NET, Oct 11, 2008, http://engUsh.-jazeera.neťnews/afric-/2008/10/ 2008109174223218644.html.
192. Alisha Ryu, Analysts Skeptical New Somali Navy Can Fight Piracy, VOICE OF AMERICA, June 18,2009, available at http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/ 2009-06/2009-0618-voa34.cfm?CFID=277283664&CFTOKEN=40212391&jsessionid= 88309d93b2488c23b9fae 4512d2d6f47424a.
193. Gettleman, supra note 13.
194. See French, Spanish Defence Ministers Launch Anti-Piracy Plan, AGENCE FRANCEPRESSE, Nov. 2, 2008, http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1225635422.48.
195. Argaw Ashine, Gaddafi Defends Somali Pirates, DAILY NATION (Kenya), Feb. 5, 2009, available at http://www.nation.co.ke/News/africa/-/1066/525348/-/view/ printVersion//wjo0r1z/-/index.html.
196. See Third Geneva Convention art. 4(A)(6), supra note 110,75 U.N.T.S. at 140.
197. See Common Article 2, supra note 110.
198. Protocol II, supra note 110,1125 U.N.T.S. at 609
199. Prosecutor v. Tadic, Trial Judgment, Case No. IT-94-1-IICTY (May 7,1997).
200. See INT'L LAW ASS'N, DRAFT REPORT ON MEANING OF ARMED CONFLICT IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (2008) (disputing British court decision treating Somalia as a noninternational armed conflict).
201. Mohammed Ibrahim, Somalia Fighting Kills at Least 15, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 25, 2009, at A6.
202. See Third Geneva Convention art. 4, supra note 110,75 U.N.T.S. at 140.
203. See Charlie Savage, Obama 's War on Terror May Resemble Bush's in Some Areas, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 18, 2009, at A20;
204. see also Mark Mazzetti & Eric Schmitt, Military Sending Foreign Fighters to Home Nations, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 28, 2008, at Al.
205. See Third Geneva Convention art. 6, supra note 110,75 U.N.T.S. at 142.
206. Id. art. 5 and Commentary,
207. supra note 110, 75 U.N.T.S. at 140-142
208. George Aldrich, The Taliban, al Qaeda, and the Determination of Illegal Combatants, 96 AM. J. INT'L L. 891, 896-897 (2002).
209. See UNCLOS, supra note 8, arts. 100-107
210. The same can be said about using civilian courts for Guantanamo detainees, a development currently in its infancy.
211. Press Release, U.S. Embassy to Kenya, Capture of Suspected Somali Pirates, Feb. 2, 2006, http://nairobi.usembassy.gov/pr-20060202.htail.
212. See Bahar, supra note 91, at 41.
213. Sarah McGregor, Aid Group to Defend Somali Piracy Suspects, Ensure Fair Trials, BLOOMBERG, Aug. 3, 2009, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid= 20601116&sid =a5wQ7mzHZEEY;
214. Sarah McGregor, Somali Pirates' Kenya Trial, BLOOMBERG, Aug. 7, 2009, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601116&sid=aL9GurP5q2uc.
215. See United States v. Shi, 525 F.3d 709 (9th Cir. 2008); .
216. see also Kontorovich, supra note 83.
217. The case concerned the murder of a fishing trawler captain by the disgruntled ship's cook.
218. See id.
219. Bahar, supra note 91, at 48;
220. David McKenzie, Somali Men Accused of Piracy Face January Trial, CNN.COM, Dec. 11, 2008, http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/12/11/ kenya.piracytrial/ index.html (quoting lawyer for suspected pirates captured by Britain and turned over to Kenya as arguing that his clients were fishing in Yemeni waters);
221. Katharine Houreld, Suspected Somali Pirates Appear in Kenyan Court, ABC NEWS, Apr. 23, 2009, http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=7407910.
222. See Jeffrey Gettleman, Somalia Pirates Capture Tanks and Global Notice, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 27,2008, at Al.
223. Suspected Pirates Face Trial, KENYA BROAD. CORP., Dec. 11, 2008, http://www.kbc.co.ke/story.asp?ID=54420.
224. See Travis Kavulla, Prosecuting Captured Somali Pirates Poses Challenges, FOXNEWS.COM, NOV. 26, 2008, http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,457827,00.html.
225. See Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507,526-527 (2004) (holding that the legal status of a detainee captured in Afghanistan is not "undisputed" where the detainee claims he is not a combatant).
226. Matthias Gebauer & Holger Stark, Somali Pirate Trial Tests Limits of EU Mbsion, DER SPIEGEL, Apr. 1, 2009, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/ 0,1518,616760,00.html ("There are many indications that the [pirate] suspects' testimony [that they knew nothing of the nature of their boat's mission] is nothing but lies to cover themselves, but proving the contrary could be complicated.").
227. See, e.g., In re Guantanamo Detainee Cases, 355 F. Supp. 3d 443 (D.D.C 2005);
228. Khalid v. Bush, 355 F. Supp. 2d 311 (D.D.C. 2005).
229. Rasul v. Bush, 215 F. Supp. 2d 55, 59-61 (2002) (describing factual claims of detainees).
230. See Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 511.
231. See Dep't of Defense, Office of Admin. Review of Detention of Enemy Combatants at U.S. Naval Base Guantanamo Bay, Unclassified Summary of Evidence for Administrative Review Board in the Case of Lagha, Lufti Bin Swei, May 2, 2005, at 3, available at http://projec-.nytimes.contguantanamo/detamees/660- lufti-bm-swei-lagha/documents/l/pages/ 1089?scp=3&sq=lagha&st=cse#4 ("The following primary factors favor release or transfer: (a) Detainee stated that he went to Afghanistan as a tourist, (b) During his stay in Afghanistan, the detainee said that he spent his time fishing and recreating, and remained in Jalabad the entire time.").
232. Carol Rosenberg, Bring Guantanamo Detainee Back Now, Canadian Court Says, SUN-SENTINEL, Aug. 15,2009, at 16A.
233. See, e.g., William Glaberson & Eric Lichtblau, Guantanamo Detainee's
234. See Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466 (2004).
235. Sandra Jontz, 9 Suspected Pirates Freed in Somalia, STARS & STRIPES, Mar. 4,2009, available at http://www.stripes.com/article.asp?section= 104&article=61100; .
236. see also Questions About Evidence Against Suspected Pirates, INT'L HERALD TRIB., Feb. 13, 2009, available at http://www.ihtcom/articles/ap/2009/02/13/ america/US-Pirates.php.
237. See Kate Wiltrout Nine Suspected Pirates Set Free; Others Could Face Trials, VA.-PILOT, Mar. 3, 2009, available at http://hamptonroads.com/2009/03/ nine-suspected-pirates-setfree-others-could-face-trials.
238. Gebauer & Stark, supra note 158.
239. Baumgartner Statement, supra note 54 (citing the "significant legal and logistical challenges in transporting pirates, evidence and witnesses to appear in their courts" as a reason patrolling navies do not take custody of pirates);
240. James Kráska & Brian Wilson, Fighting Pirates: The Pen and the Sword, WORLD POL'Y J., Winter 2008-2009, at 45 (noting the "great expense and logistical and legal burdens of transporting the pirates to a Western country for prosecution").
241. See JOINT UNDOC/EUR. COMM'N PROGRAM, EU SUPPORT TO THE TRIAL AND RELATED TREATMENT OF PIRACY SUSPECTS 3, 10 (May 2009) [hereinafter "EU SUPPORT"], available at http://www.asil.org/files/AnnexE-ECAssistance.pdf (discussing obstacles to prosecuting pirates, and noting that "locating [witnesses] and transferring them to the trying state can be difficult, expensive, and time consuming"). See, e.g., Gebauer & Stark, supra note 158 (reporting that the trial of a group of pirates in Kenya may be dismissed if the judge requires testimony of the captain of the victim vessel, who is outside the jurisdiction of the prosecuting state).
242. See United States v. Shi, 396 F. Supp. 2d 1132, 1134 (D. Haw. 2003) (noting in a prosecution under SUA that the case required arresting the entire crew of the victim vessel and holding them without bail as material witnesses, measures which were only possible because the ship had been taken into U.S. waters by the Coast Guard).
243. See Kavulla, supra note 156;
244. Kenyan Pirates Trial Delayed, NEWS24.COM, http://www.news24.com/ ContentAfrica/News/965/adaf2865499c43b986ce83300c40087e/06-022006-11-01/ Kenyan-pirates-trial-delayed.
245. EU SUPPORT, supra note 170, at 11.
246. Brief of Plaintiff-Appellee at 3,
247. United States v. Shi, 525 F.3d 709 (9th Cir. 2008) (No.06-10389), 2007 WL 1511823.
248. Id. at 10-11;
249. EU SUPPORT, supra note 170, at 3.
250. Similarly, one of the major concerns about civilian trials for Guantanamo detainees is the extent to which military personnel would have to come and testify. Compare Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 534-35 ("[Arguments that military officers ought not have to wage war under the threat of litigation lose much of their steam when factual disputes at enemy-combatant hearings are limited to the alleged combatant's acts."),
251. with id. at 595-596 (Thomas, J., dissenting) ("Under the process envisioned by the plurality, various military officials will have to take time to litigate [combatant status] matter[s]."). The problems of prosecuting piracy show that concerns about diverting or distracting military personnel through the judicial process for those detained by them are not fanciful.
252. Gebauer & Stark, supra note 158.
253. See Bahar, supra note 91, at 41;
254. Politics Influences the Jurisdiction for Somali Pirate Trials, DEUTSCHE WELLE, Apr. 22, 2009, http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0.,0,00.html (reporting allegations that detainees were denied an Islamic diet by Kenya).
255. See Richard A. Serrano & John Daniszewski, Dozens Have Alleged Koran's Mishandling, L.A. TIMES, May 22,2005, at Al.
256. See Bahar, supra note 91, at 41.
257. Kenya: Concerns Growing over Trial of Pirates in Kenya, MUSLIM NEWS, June 16, 2009, http://www.muslimnews.co.uk/news/news.php?article=16363.
258. Alisha Ryu, Rights Group Questions US Deal to Send Pirates to Kenya, VOICE OF AMERICA, Feb. 13,2008, http://www.voanews.com/english/2009-02-13-voa43. cfm.
259. Woolf, supra note 11.
260. Somali Pirates on Trial in Netherlands, DUTCHNEWS.NL, May 18 2009, http://www.dutchnews.nl/news/arcluves/2009/05/somali-pirates-on-trial-in-netphp (reporting that pirates on trial in Holland are happy to be there and wish to stay).
261. See Suspected Pirates Turned over to Yemen, CNN.COM, Dec. 5, 2008, http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/12/05/yemen.pirates/index.html;
262. Derek S. Reveron, Think Again: Pirates, FOREIGN POL'Y, Jan. 2009, available at http://www.foreignpolicy.com/ story/cms.php?story-id=4626&page= 1.
263. Aoife Duffy, Expulsion to Face Torture? Non-Refoulement in International Law, 20 INT'L J. REFUGEE L. 373,378-379
264. See, e.g., Woolf, supra note 11.
265. See EU Launches Anti-Piracy Mbsion off Somalia, E.U. OBSERVER.COM, NOV. 10, 2008, http://euobserver.eom/9/27248;
266. Corey Flintoff, Prosecuting Pirates: No More Walking the Plank, NAT'L PUB. RADIO, Jan. 9, 2009, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/ story.php?storyld=99169738;
267. Woolf, supra note 11 ("The [British] Foreign Office has advised that pirates sent back to Somalia could have their human rights breached because, under Islamic law, they face beheading for murder or having a hand chopped off for theft.").
268. See U.N. Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment art. 3(1), G.A. Res. 39/46, 39 U.N. GAOR Supp. No.51 at 197, U.N. Doc. A/RES/39/708 (1984), reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984) ("No State Party shall expel, return ('refouler') or extradite a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture.").
269. See French Warship Thwarts Pirate Attack, NAT'L PUB. RADIO, Jan. 6, 2009, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyld=99036159;
270. Marcus Hand, French Navy Captures 19 Somali Pirates, LLOYD'S LIST, Jan. 5, 2009, available at http://www.lloydslist.com/ ll/news/french-navy-captures- 19-somali-pirates/20017603853.htm. The European Court of Human Rights recently ruled that such assurances do not in themselves excuse refoulement.
271. See Fiona de Londras, Saadi v. Italy: European Court of Human Rights Reasserts the Absolute Prohibition on Refoulement in Terrorism Extradition Cases, ASIL INSIGHTS, May 13, 2008, available at http://www.asil.Org/ insights080513.cfm#-ednref3.
272. Russian Navy Transfers Detained Somali Pirates to Yemen, RIA NOVOSTI, Feb. 18, 2009, available at http://en.rian.ru/world/2009O218/120209688.html.
273. See Eugene Kontorovich, Introductory Note to Exchange of Letters Between European Union and Kenya to Prosecute Pirates, 48 INT'L LEGAL MATERIALS 747 (2009).
274. For example, judges once brushed away Somali defendants' complaints of torture by observing that that "they do- not appear to be bleeding."
275. See Kavulla, supra note 156.
276. EU SUPPORT, supra note 170, at 1-2.
277. See id. at 16 (listing EU budget for the program as $2.3 million).
278. Kenya to Help Navy Chase Pirates, COPENHAGEN POST ONLINE, Aug. 18, 2009, http://www.cphpost.dlnews/mternational/89-mternational/46605-kenya-to-help-navy- chasepirates.html.
279. See Gebauer & Stark, supra note 158 ("In return [for taking pirates captured by European navies], the Kenyans hope to get speedboats, helicopters and modern fire trucks.");
280. see abo Phillipe Naughton, Foreign Office Fury over Settlement of Guantanamo Uighurs in Bermuda, TIMES ONLINE (London), http://www.timesonline.co. uk/tol/news/world/article6480320.ece (reporting that Patau appeared to accept Guantanamo detainees in exchange for $200 million in foreign aid, and that Bermuda was compensated for its costs in accepting detainees).
281. See generally Eugene Kontorovich, The Inefficiency of Universal Jurisdiction, 2008 U. III. L. REV. 389, 398 (2008) (discussing role of implicit compensation paid from one state to another to facilitate efficient allocation of prosecutorial entitlements).
282. Sarah Childress, US. Warns Kenya on Human Rights, Aug. 6,2009, at A7.
283. Derek Kilner, U.N. Official Calls for Dismissal of Kenya's Police Chief, Attorney General, VOICE OF AMERICA, Feb. 25, 2009, http://www.voanews.com/ english/2009-02-25voa59.cfm.
284. Sarah McGregor, Clinton Softens Stance on Kenyan Tribunal, BLOOMBERG, Aug. 5, 2009, http/www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601116&sid= aFTsF3WqlK0c.
285. Id.
286. EU SUPPORT, supra note 170, at 3.
287. Amnesty International, Extraordinary Rendition, "Dbappearances" and Secret Prisons, http://www.aninestyusa.org/war-on-terror/extraordinary- rendition-disappearances-andsecret-prisons/page.do?id=1051263 Oast visited Mar. 11, 2009). In contrast, the rendition of terror suspects to Yemen, Egypt, and other countries is the subject of a long-running litigation against U.S. officials.
288. One obscure human rights group has challenged the transfer arrangements with Kenya, but the overall reaction appears more muted than for the transfer of terror suspects. Parisbased Group Says Accused Somali Pirates Denied Rights, VOICE OF AMERICA, Aug. 27, 2009, http://www.voanews.com/enghsh/2009-08-27-voa36. cfm;
289. David Osier, Kenya Trials at Risk of Breaching Human Rights Laws, LLOYD'S LIST, Aug. 25, 2009, http://www.lloydslist.com/ll/ home/blogView.htm?blogId= 20001015481.
290. The U.S. transfer in 2006 was thought to be the first of its kind.
291. UNCLOS, supra note 8, art. 105 (emphasis added).
292. See REPORT OF THE INT'L LAW COMM'N, supra note 72, art. 43 ("This article gives any State the right to seize pirate ships (and ships seized by pirates) and to have them adjudicated upon by its courts. This right cannot be exercised at a place under the jurisdiction of another State.") (emphasis added).
293. Similarly, one of the difficulties of the current War on Terror is fitting new kinds of problems, like terrorist groups with global reach, into older legal instruments like the Geneva Conventions.
294. INT'L EXPERT GROUP ON PIRACY OFF THE SOMALI COAST, FINAL REPORT, PIRACY OFF THE SOMALI COAST: WORKSHOP COMMISSIONED BY THE SPECIAL REPRESENTATIVE OF THE SECRETARY GENERAL OF THE U.N. TO SOMALIA 7 (2008), available at http://www.imcsnet.org/imcs/docs/sonialia-piracy-intl-experts-report- consolidated.pdf ("Neither the LOSC nor the High Seas Convention directly address the transfer of suspects ashore.").
295. Compare Treves, supra note 74, at 408 ("The rule in Article 105 does not, however, establish the exclusive jurisdiction of the seizing state's courts. Courts of other states are not precluded from exercising jurisdiction under conditions which they establish."),
296. with Milena Sterio, Fighting Piracy in Somalia (and Elsewhere): Why More Is Needed 14 (Cleveland-Marshall Legal Studies Paper No. 09-178, 2009), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm? abstract-id=1468021 ("Under UNCLOS, the legality of this type of transfer is dubious.").
297. See UNCLOS, supra note 8, art. 104 ("A ship or aircraft may retain its nationality although it has become a pirate ship or aircraft. The retention or loss of nationality is determined by the law of the State from which such nationality was derived.").
298. See REPORT OF THE INT' L LAW COMM' N, supra note 72, art. 43 cmt.
299. -3 UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA, 1982: A COMMENTARY 212-215 (Myron Nordquist ed., 1995).
300. Lawrence Azubuike, International Law Regime Against Piracy, 15 ANN. SURV. INT'L & COMP. L. 43, 54-55 (2009) (describing the view that noncapturing states lack jurisdiction as "plausible" but by "no means compelling" given the longstanding customary norm of universal jurisdiction).
301. See COUNTERING PIRACY, supra note 7;
302. Baumgartner Statement, supra note 54 ("A key component of the proposed consequence delivery system advocates application of the SUA Convention.").
303. See SUA art. 6(1), supra note 80, at 669 (allowing any state party to prosecute defendants found in their territory);
304. id. art. 8, at 669 (allowing suspects to be turned over to any state party by master of vessel);
305. id. art. 11 (allowing for extradition of suspects to any flag state).
306. See PETER CSONKA, EUR. COMM'N, PIRACY AND ARMED ROBBERY AGAINST SHIPPING, BRIEFING ON INTERNATIONAL PIRACY (Jan. 21, 2009), available at http://ec.europa.eu/ transport/maritime/events/doc/2009-01-21-piracy/jls- presentation-csonka-legal-aspects.pdf ("[H]ad the universal jurisdiction over pirates been absolute any state of the world could have issued arrest warrants against pirates. State practice, however, does not show any such trend, and this bears out the 'conditional' nature of such category of universal jurisdiction.").
307. See Principle No. 8, Princeton Principles of Universal Jurisdiction, in UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION: NATIONAL COURTS AND THE PROSECUTION OF SERIOUS CRIMES UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW 23 (Stephen Macedo ed., 2006);
308. see also Anne-Marrie Slaughter, Defining the Limits: Universal Jurisdiction and National Courts,
309. in id. at 172-173
310. See, e.g., Daniel Woolls, Spain Moves to Win Hostage Sailors ' Freedom, ASSOCIATED PRESS, NOV. 16, 2009 (reporting on Spanish charges against Somali accused of attacking Spanish fishing vessel).
311. See, e.g., STEPHEN MACEDO, UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION: NATIONAL COURTS AND THE PROSECUTION OF SERIOUS CRIMES UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW 5 (2006) (describing "universal jurisdiction as . . . part of a wider set of political and legal movements to expand legal accountability and the global rule of law, and thereby to end impunity for serious crimes under international law")
312. Jonny Paul, Army Pays Price for Honoring Int'l Law, Jerusalem Post.Com, Nov. 30, 2008, http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ ShowFull&cid=122770 2364476.
313. Julian Isherwood, Pirates Released on Beach, POLITIKEN, Sept. 24, 2008, http://politiken.dk/newsinenglish/article572053.ece.
314. See Luc REYDAMS, UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION: INTERNATIONAL AND MUNICIPAL PERSPECTIVES 128-29 (2003). To be sure, in European civil law jurisdictions, prosecution requires an affirmative statute. The Danish universal jurisdiction law appears to authorize prosecution only when it is mandated, rather than permitted, by international law.
315. See id. But such statutory lacunae can be easily corrected where there is a political interest in prosecuting.
316. Brian Reyes, Spain Judge Hands over Somali Pirates, LLOYD'S LIST, May 8, 2009, http://www.lloydslist.com/ll/news/spam-judge-hands-over-somali-pirates-to- kenya/20017648702. htm%3Bjsessionid=F27F836B87FE26232224D8DC27830EEE;
317. Daniel Woolls, Spain: About Face on Piracy Suspects, CHICAGO DEFENDER, May 8, 2009, http://www.chicagodefender.com/ article-4353-spain-about-face-on- piracy-suspects.html.
318. Craig Whitlock, Spain's Judges Cross Borders in Rights Case; High-Ranking U.S. Officials Among Targets of Inquiries, WASH. POST, May 24, 2009, at Al.
319. The Geneva Conventions do not appear to authorize universal jurisdiction in abstentia. See Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention) art 147, Aug. 12, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 287.
320. See, e.g., Burgess, supra note 6;
321. Anthony J. Colangelo, Constitutional Limits on Extraterritorial Jurisdiction: Terrorism and the Intersection of National and International Law, 48 HARV. INT'L LJ. 121, 201 (2007);
322. Ingrid Detter, The Law of War and Illegal Combatants, 75 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 1049, 1096-1101 (2007);
323. Morris L. Sinor & Robin M. Blackwood, Confronting Nomadic Terrorism, 52 NAVAL L. REV. 98, 117 (2005). These arguments were generally made before the current spike in incidents of piracy and the subsequent failure of states to address piracy through judicial means.
324. Baumgartaer Statement, supra note 54.