Advances in Chemotherapy and Targeted Systemic Therapies for Urothelial Cancer

Current Drug Therapy

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 17-28

  Crabb, Simon J ^a,b   Wheater, Matthew ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL SOUTHAMPTON NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bladder cancer; Chemotherapy; Systemic therapy; Urothelial cancer

Indexed keywords

BORTEZOMIB; CARBOPLATIN; CISPLATIN; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; DOCETAXEL; DOXORUBICIN; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR 2; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR 3; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR 4; EPIRUBICIN; ERLOTINIB; GEFITINIB; GEMCITABINE; GRANULOCYTE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; IFOSFAMIDE; IXABEPILONE; LAPATINIB; LONAFARNIB; METHOTREXATE; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY DC101; PACLITAXEL; PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR; SORAFENIB; SUNITINIB; TRASTUZUMAB; UNINDEXED DRUG; VASCULOTROPIN; VINBLASTINE;

BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER SURGERY; CANCER SURVIVAL; DIARRHEA; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG TARGETING; FATIGUE; HAND FOOT SYNDROME; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; OVERALL SURVIVAL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; STOMATITIS; THROMBOEMBOLISM; URINARY TRACT CANCER; UROGENITAL TRACT CANCER;

EID: 77950966258     PISSN: 15748855     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1574885511005010017     Document Type: Review

References (151)

1. Cancer Research UK Available from http://info.cancerresearchuk. org/cancerstats [Accessed 1st June, 2009].
2. Cookson MS, Herr HW, Zhang Z-F, Soloway S, Sogani PC, Fair WR. The treated natural history of high risk superficial bladder cancer: 15-year outcome. J Urol 1997; 158: 62-67
3. Herr HW. Cis-diamminedichloride platinum II in the treatment of advanced bladder cancer. J Urol 1980; 123: 853-855
4. Soloway MS, Ikard M, Ford K. Cis-diamminedichloroplatinum (II) in locally advanced and metastatic urothelial cancer. Cancer 1981; 47: 476-480
5. Natale RB, Yagoda A, Watson RC, Whitmore WF, Blumenreich M, Braun DW, Jr. Methotrexate: an active drug in bladder cancer. Cancer 1981; 47: 1246-1250
6. Blumenreich MS, Yagoda A, Natale RB, Watson RC. Phase II trial of vinblastine sulfate for metastatic urothelial tract tumors. Cancer 1982; 50: 435-438
7. Harker WG, Meyers FJ, Freiha FS, et al. Cisplatin, methotrexate, and vinblastine (CMV): an effective chemotherapy regimen for metastatic transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary tract. A Northern California Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 1985; 3: 1463-1470
8. Sternberg CN, Yagoda A, Scher HI, et al. Preliminary results of M-VAC (methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin and cisplatin) for transitional cell carcinoma of the urothelium. J Urol 1985; 133: 403-407
9. Loehrer PJ, Sr, Einhorn LH, Elson PJ, et al. A randomized comparison of cisplatin alone or in combination with methotrexate, vinblastine, and doxorubicin in patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma: a cooperative group study. J Clin Oncol 1992; 10: 1066-1073
10. Saxman SB, Propert KJ, Einhorn LH, et al. Long-term follow-up of a phase III intergroup study of cisplatin alone or in combination with methotrexate, vinblastine, and doxorubicin in patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma: a cooperative group study. J Clin Oncol 1997; 15: 2564-2569
11. Logothetis CJ, Dexeus FH, Finn L, et al. A prospective randomized trial comparing MVAC and CISCA chemotherapy for patients with metastatic urothelial tumors. J Clin Oncol 1990; 8: 1050-1055
12. Sternberg CN, de Mulder PH, Schornagel JH, et al. Randomized phase III trial of high-dose-intensity methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin, and cisplatin (MVAC) chemotherapy and recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor versus classic MVAC in advanced urothelial tract tumors. European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Protocol no. 30924. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19: 2638-2646
13. Roth BJ, Dreicer R, Einhorn LH, et al. Significant activity of paclitaxel in advanced transitional-cell carcinoma of the urothelium: a phase II trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 1994; 12: 2264-2270
14. Lorusso V, Pollera CF, Antimi M, et al. A phase II study of gemcitabine in patients with transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary tract previously treated with platinum. Italian Co-operative Group on Bladder Cancer. Eur J Cancer 1998; 34: 1208-1212
15. Moore MJ, Winquist EW, Murray N, et al. Gemcitabine plus cisplatin, an active regimen in advanced urothelial cancer: a phase II trial of the National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials Group. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17: 2876-2881
16. Kaufman D, Raghavan D, Carducci M, et al. Phase II trial of gemcitabine plus cisplatin in patients with metastatic urothelial cancer. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18: 1921-1927
17. von der Maase H, Andersen L, Crino L, Weinknecht S, Dogliotti L. Weekly gemcitabine and cisplatin combination therapy in patients with transitional cell carcinoma of the urothelium: a phase II clinical trial. Ann Oncol 1999; 10: 1461-1465
18. von der Maase H, Hansen SW, Roberts JT, et al. Gemcitabine and cisplatin versus methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin, and cisplatin in advanced or metastatic bladder cancer: results of a large,randomized, multinational, multicenter, phase III study. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18: 3068-77.]
19. von der Maase H, Sengelov L, Roberts JT, et al. Long-term survival results of a randomized trial comparing gemcitabine plus cisplatin, with methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin, plus cisplatin in patients with bladder cancer. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 4602-4608
20. Nogue-Aliguer M, Carles J, Arrivi A, et al. Gemcitabine and carboplatin in advanced transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary tract: an alternative therapy. Cancer 2003; 97: 2180-2186
21. Bamias A, Moulopoulos LA, Koutras A, et al. The combination of gemcitabine and carboplatin as first-line treatment in patients with advanced urothelial carcinoma. A Phase II study of the Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group. Cancer 2006; 106: 297-303.
22. Bellmunt J, Ribas A, Eres N, et al. Carboplatin-based versus cisplatin-based chemotherapy in the treatment of surgically incurable advanced bladder carcinoma. Cancer 1997; 80: 1966-1972
23. Linardou H, Aravantinos G, Efstathiou E, et al. Gemcitabine and carboplatin combination as first-line treatment in elderly patients and those unfit for cisplatin-based chemotherapy with advanced bladder carcinoma: Phase II study of the Hellenic Co-operative Oncology Group. Urology 2004; 64: 479-484
24. De Santis M, Bellmunt Molins J, de Wit R, et al. Randomized phase II/III trial assessing gemcitabine/carboplatin (GC) and methotrexate/carboplatin/ vinblastine (M-CAVI) in patients (pts) with advanced urothelial cancer (UC) "unfit" for cisplatin based chemotherapy (CHT): Updated phase II results and risk group analysis of EORTC study 30986. J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts) 2008; 26: 5031.
25. Rangel C, Niell H, Miller A, Cox C. Taxol and taxotere in bladder cancer: in vitro activity and urine stability. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1994; 33: 460-464
26. Dimopoulos MA, Bakoyannis C, Georgoulias V, et al. Docetaxel and cisplatin combination chemotherapy in advanced carcinoma of the urothelium: a multicenter phase II study of the Hellenic CooperativeOncology Group. Ann Oncol 1999; 10: 1385-1388
27. Gitlitz BJ, Baker C, Chapman Y, et al. A phase II study of gemcitabine and docetaxel therapy in patients with advanced urothelial carcinoma. Cancer 2003; 98: 1863-1869
28. Bamias A, Aravantinos G, Deliveliotis C, et al. Docetaxel and cisplatin with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) versus MVAC with G-CSF in advanced urothelial carcinoma: a multicenter, randomized, phase III study from the Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22: 220-228
29. Bellmunt J, von der Maase H, Mead GM, et al. Randomized phase III study comparing paclitaxel/cisplatin/gemcitabine (PCG) and gemcitabine/cisplatin (GC) in patients with locally advanced (LA)or metastatic (M) urothelial cancer without prior systemic therapy; EORTC30987/Intergroup Study. J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts) 2007; 25: LBA5030.
30. Witte RS, Elson P, Bono B, et al. Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group phase II trial of ifosfamide in the treatment of previously treated advanced urothelial carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 1997; 15: 589-593
31. Einhorn LH, Roth BJ, Ansari R, Dreicer R, Gonin R, Loehrer PJ. Phase II trial of vinblastine, ifosfamide, and gallium combination chemotherapy in metastatic urothelial carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 1994; 12: 2271-2276
32. Kyriakakis Z, Dimopoulos MA, Kostakopoulos A, et al. Cisplatin, ifosfamide, methotrexate and vinblastine combination chemotherapy for metastatic urothelial cancer. J Urol 1997; 158: 408-411
33. Siefker-Radtke AO, Kamat AM, Williams DL, et al. A phase II randomized four-regimen selection trial incorporating response for sequential chemotherapy in metastatic, unresectable urothelial cancer: final results from the M. D. Anderson Cancer Center. J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts) 2009; 27: 5071.
34. Vaughn DJ, Broome CM, Hussain M, Gutheil JC, Markowitz AB. Phase II trial of weekly paclitaxel in patients with previously treated advanced urothelial cancer. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20: 937-940
35. Otto T, Bex A, Krege S, Walz PH, Rubben H. Paclitaxel-based second-line therapy for patients with advanced chemotherapyresistant bladder carcinoma (M1): a clinical Phase II study. Cancer 1997; 80: 465-470
36. Vaishampayan UN, Faulkner JR, Small EJ, et al. Phase II trial of carboplatin and paclitaxel in cisplatin-pretreated advanced transitional cell carcinoma: a Southwest Oncology Group study. Cancer 2005; 104: 1627-1632
37. Sternberg CN, Calabro F, Pizzocaro G, Marini L, Schnetzer S, Sella A. Chemotherapy with an every-2-week regimen of gemcitabine and paclitaxel in patients with transitional cell carcinomawho have received prior cisplatin-based therapy. Cancer 2001; 92: 2993-2998
38. McCaffrey JA, Hilton S, Mazumdar M, et al. Phase II trial of docetaxel in patients with advanced or metastatic transitional-cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 1997; 15: 1853-1857 (Pubitemid 27209514)
39. Dreicer R, Li S, Manola J, Haas NB, Roth BJ, Wilding G. Phase 2 trial of epothilone B analog BMS-247550 (ixabepilone) in advanced carcinoma of the urothelium (E3800): a trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Cancer 2007; 110: 759-763
40. Krege S, Rembrink V, Borgermann C, Otto T, Rubben H. Docetaxel and ifosfamide as second line treatment for patients with advanced or metastatic urothelial cancer after failure of platinumchemotherapy: a phase 2 study. J Urol 2001; 165: 67-71.
41. Pectasides D, Aravantinos G, Kalofonos H, et al. Combination chemotherapy with gemcitabine and ifosfamide as second-line treatment in metastatic urothelial cancer. A phase II trial conducted by the Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group. Ann Oncol 2001; 12: 1417-1422
42. Lin CC, Hsu CH, Huang CY, et al. Gemcitabine and ifosfamide as a second-line treatment for cisplatin-refractory metastatic urothelial carcinoma: a phase II study. Anticancer Drugs 2007; 18: 487-491
43. Bonfil RD, Russo DM, Binda MM, Delgado FM, Vincenti M. Higher antitumor activity of vinflunine than vinorelbine against an orthotopic murine model of transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Urol Oncol 2002; 7: 159-166
44. Culine S, Theodore C, De Santis M, et al. A phase II study of vinflunine in bladder cancer patients progressing after first-line platinum-containing regimen. Br J Cancer 2006; 94: 1395-1401
45. Vaughn DJ, Srinivas S, Stadler WM, et al. Vinflunine in platinumpretreated patients with locally advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma: results of a large phase 2 study. Cancer 2009; 115(18): 4110-4117
46. Bellmunt J, Théodore C, Demkov T, et al. Phase III trial of vinflunine plus best supportive care compared with best supportive care alone after a platinum-containing regimen in patients with advanced transitional cell carcinoma of the urothelial tract. J Clin Oncol 2009; 27: 4454-4461
47. Paz-Ares L, Bezares S, Tabernero JM, Castellanos D, Cortes-Funes H. Review of a promising new agent--pemetrexed disodium. Cancer 2003; 97: 2056-2063
48. Sweeney CJ, Roth BJ, Kabbinavar FF, et al. Phase II study of pemetrexed for second-line treatment of transitional cell cancer of the urothelium. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 3451-3457
49. Galsky MD, Mironov S, Iasonos A, Scattergood J, Boyle MG, Bajorin DF. Phase II trial of pemetrexed as second-line therapy in patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma. Invest New Drugs 2007; 25: 265-270
50. Dreicer R, Li H, Cooney MM, Wilding G, Roth BJ. Phase 2 trial of pemetrexed disodium and gemcitabine in advanced urothelial cancer (E4802): a trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Cancer 2008; 112: 2671-2675
51. Wallace DM, Raghavan D, Kelly KA, et al. Neo-adjuvant (preemptive) cisplatin therapy in invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Br J Urol 1991; 67: 608-615
52. Martinez-Pineiro JA, Gonzalez Martin M, Arocena F, et al. Neoadjuvant cisplatin chemotherapy before radical cystectomy in invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: a prospective randomized phase III study. J Urol 1995; 153: 964-973
53. Malmstrom PU, Rintala E, Wahlqvist R, Hellstrom P, Hellsten S, Hannisdal E. Five-year followup of a prospective trial of radical cystectomy and neoadjuvant chemotherapy: Nordic Cystectomy Trial I. The Nordic Cooperative Bladder Cancer Study Group. J Urol 1996; 155: 1903-1906
54. Grossman HB, Natale RB, Tangen CM, et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy plus cystectomy compared with cystectomy alone for locally advanced bladder cancer. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 859-866
55. International collaboration of trialists. Neoadjuvant cisplatin, methotrexate, and vinblastine chemotherapy for muscle-invasive bladder cancer: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 1999; 354: 533-540
56. International collaboration of trialists on behalf of the Medical Research Council Advanced Bladder Cancer Working Party, EORTC Genito-Urinary Group, Australian Bladder Cancer Study Group, National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials Group, Finnbladder, Norwegian Bladder Cancer Study Group, Club Urologico Espanol de Tratamiento Oncologico (CUETO) group. Neoadjuvant cisplatin, methotrexate, and vinblastine chemotherapy for muscle-invasive bladder cancer: a randomised controlled trial Lancet 1999; 354: 533-540
57. Advanced Bladder Cancer (ABC) Meta-analysis Collaboration. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy in invasive bladder cancer: update of asystematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data. Eur Urol 2005; 48: 202-205
58. Stockle M, Meyenburg W, Wellek S, et al. Adjuvant polychemotherapy of nonorgan-confined bladder cancer after radical cystectomy revisited: long-term results of a controlled prospective study and further clinical experience. J Urol 1995; 153: 47-52.
59. Studer UE, Bacchi M, Biedermann C, et al. Adjuvant cisplatin chemotherapy following cystectomy for bladder cancer: results of a prospective randomized trial. J Urol 1994; 152: 81-84
60. Freiha F, Reese J, Torti FM. A randomized trial of radical cystectomy versus radical cystectomy plus cisplatin, vinblastine and methotrexate chemotherapy for muscle invasive bladder cancer. J Urol 1996; 155: 495-499
61. Advanced Bladder Cancer (ABC) Meta-analysis Collaboration. Adjuvant chemotherapy in invasive bladder cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data. Eur Urol 2005; 48: 189-199
62. Cognetti F, Ruggeri EM, Felici A, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy (AC) with cisplatin + gemcitabine (CG) versus chemotherapy (CT) at relapse (CR) in patients (pts) with muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) submitted to radical cystectomy (RC). An Italian multicenter randomised phase III trial. J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts) 2008; 26: 5023.
63. Crabb SJ, Chia SK. HER2 directed therapies. Adv Breast Cancer 2007; 4: 40-47
64. Shepard HM. Signal integration: a framework for understanding the efficacy of therapeutics targeting the human EGFR family. J Clin Invest 2008; 118: 3574-3581
65. Laurent-Puig P, Lievre A, Blons H. Mutations and response to epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors. Clin Cancer Res 2009; 15: 1133-1139
66. de Pinieux G, Colin D, Vincent-Salomon A, et al. Confrontation of immunohistochemistry and fluorescent in situ hybridization for the assessment of HER-2/ neu (c-erbb-2) status in urothelial carcinoma. Virchows Arch 2004; 444: 415-419
67. Lonn U, Lonn S, Friberg S, Nilsson B, Silfversward C, Stenkvist B. Prognostic value of amplification of c-erb-B2 in bladder carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res 1995; 1: 1189-1194
68. Cardillo MR, Castagna G, Memeo L, De Bernardinis E, Di Silverio F. Epidermal growth factor receptor, MUC-1 and MUC-2 in bladder cancer. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2000; 19: 225-233
69. Gandour-Edwards R, Lara PN, Jr, Folkins AK, et al. Does HER2/neu expression provide prognostic information in patients with advanced urothelial carcinoma? Cancer 2002; 95: 1009-1015
70. Lipponen P, Eskelinen M. Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor in bladder cancer as related to established prognostic factors, oncoprotein (c-erbB-2, p53) expression and long-term prognosis. Br J Cancer 1994; 69: 1120-1125
71. Memon AA, Sorensen BS, Meldgaard P, Fokdal L, Thykjaer T, Nexo E. The relation between survival and expression of HER1 and HER2 depends on the expression of HER3 and HER4: a study in bladder cancer patients. Br J Cancer 2006; 94: 1703-1709
72. Popov Z, Gil-Diez-De-Medina S, Ravery V, et al. Prognostic value of EGF receptor and tumor cell proliferation in bladder cancer: therapeutic implications. Urol Oncol 2004; 22: 93-101.
73. Rotterud R, Nesland JM, Berner A, Fossa SD. Expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor family in normal and malignant urothelium. BJU Int 2005; 95: 1344-1350
74. Thøgersen VB, Jørgensen PE, Sørensen BS, et al. Expression of transforming growth factor alpha and epidermal growth factor receptor in human bladder cancer. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1999; 59: 267-277
75. Mitra AP, Datar RH, Cote RJ. Molecular pathways in invasive bladder cancer: new insights into mechanisms, progression, and target identification. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 5552-5564
76. Gorgoulis VG, Barbatis C, Poulias I, Karameris AM. Molecular and immunohistochemical evaluation of epidermal growth factor receptor and c-erb-B-2 gene product in transitional cell carcinomasof the urinary bladder: a study in Greek patients. Mod Pathol 1995; 8: 758-764
77. Rajjayabun PH, Keegan PE, Lunec J, Mellon JK. erbB receptor expression patterns in human bladder cancer. Urology 2005; 66: 196-200.
78. Nguyen PL, Swanson PE, Jaszcz W, et al. Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor in invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder: A multivariate survival analysis. Am J Clin Pathol 1994; 101: 166-176
79. Dominguez-Escrig JL, Kelly JD, Neal DE, King SM, Davies BR. Evaluation of the therapeutic potential of the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib in preclinical models of bladder cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2004; 10: 4874-4884
80. Inoue R, Matsuyama H, Yano S, Yamamoto Y, Iizuka N, Naito K. Gefitinib-related gene signature in bladder cancer cells identified by a cDNA microarray. Anticancer Res 2006; 26: 4195-4202
81. Jacobs MA, Wotkowicz C, Baumgart ED, et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor status and the response of bladder carcinoma cells to erlotinib. J Urol 2007; 178: 1510-1514
82. Jin Y, Iwata KK, Belldegrun A, et al. Effect of an epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor on actin remodeling in an in vitro bladder cancer carcinogenesis model. Mol Cancer Ther 2006; 5: 1754-1763
83. Kassouf W, Dinney CP, Brown G, et al. Uncoupling between epidermal growth factor receptor and downstream signals defines resistance to the antiproliferative effect of Gefitinib in bladder cancer cells. Cancer Res 2005; 65: 10524-10535
84. Kassouf W, Luongo T, Brown G, Adam L, Dinney CP. Schedule dependent efficacy of gefitinib and docetaxel for bladder cancer. J Urol 2006; 176: 787-792
85. Maddineni SB, Sangar VK, Hendry JH, Margison GP, Clarke NW. Differential radiosensitisation by ZD1839 (Iressa), a highly selective epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor in two related bladder cancer cell lines. Br J Cancer 2005; 92: 125-130
86. Shrader M, Pino MS, Brown G, et al. Molecular correlates of gefitinib responsiveness in human bladder cancer cells. Mol Cancer Ther 2007; 6: 277-285
87. Yang JL, Qu XJ, Hayes VM, Brenner PC, Russell PJ, Goldstein D. Erlotinib (OSI-774)-induced inhibition of transitional cell carcinoma of bladder cell line growth is enhanced by interferon-alpha. BJU Int 2007; 99: 1539-1545
88. Kim WY, Grigson GI, Wallen EM, Pruthi RS. A phase II study of neoadjuvant erlotinib in patients with muscle-invasive bladder cancer undergoing radical cystectomy: preliminary results. J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts) 2008; 26: 11076.
89. Cedres S, Prat A, Martinez P, et al. Clinical surrogate markers ofsurvival in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with second-third line erlotinib. Lung Cancer 2009; doi: 10.1016/j.lungcan.2009.01. 014.
90. Philips GK, Halabi S, Sanford BL, Bajorin D, Small EJ. A phase II trial of cisplatin, fixed dose-rate gemcitabine and gefitinib for advanced urothelial tract carcinoma: results of the Cancer and Leukaemia Group B 90102. BJU Int 2008; 101: 20-25
91. Philips GK, Halabi S, Sanford BL, Bajorin D, Small EJ. A phase II trial of cisplatin (C), gemcitabine (G) and gefitinib for advanced urothelial tract carcinoma: results of Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB) 90102. Ann Oncol 2009; 20: 1074-1079
92. Perrotte P, Matsumoto T, Inoue K, et al. Anti-epidermal growth factor receptor antibody C225 inhibits angiogenesis in human transitional cell carcinoma growing orthotopically in nude mice. Clin Cancer Res 1999; 5: 257-265
93. Black PC, Brown GA, Inamoto T, et al. Sensitivity to epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor requires E-cadherin expression in urothelial carcinoma cells. Clin Cancer Res 2008; 14: 1478-1486
94. Available from: http://clinicaltrials.gov [Accessed 1st June, 2009].
95. Baselga J, Norton L, Albanell J, Kim YM, Mendelsohn J. Recombinant humanized anti-HER2 antibody (Herceptin) enhances the antitumor activity of paclitaxel and doxorubicin against HER2/neu overexpressing human breast cancer xenografts. Cancer Res 1998; 58: 2825-2831
96. Hussain MHA, MacVicar GR, Petrylak DP, et al. Trastuzumab, Paclitaxel, Carboplatin, and Gemcitabine in advanced human epidermal growth factor receptor-2/neu-positive urothelial carcinoma: results of a multicenter phase II National Cancer Institute trial. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 2218-2224
97. Pegram MD, Konecny GE, O'Callaghan C, Beryt M, Pietras R, Slamon DJ. Rational combinations of trastuzumab with chemotherapeutic drugs used in the treatment of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96: 739-749
98. Salzberg M, Borner M, Bauer JA, Morant R, Rauch D, Rochlitz C. Trastuzumab (Herceptin) in patients with HER-2-overexpressing metastatic or locally advanced transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: report on 7 patients. Eur J Cancer 2006; 42: 2660-2661
99. Peyromaure M, Scotte F, Amsellem-Ouazana D, Vieillefond A, Oudard S, Beuzeboc P. Trastuzumab (Herceptin) in metastatic transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary tract: report on six patients. Eur Urol 2005; 48: 771-775
100. Wolff AC, Hammond ME, Schwartz JN, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology/College of American Pathologists guideline recommendations for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 testing in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 118-145
101. Latif Z, Watters AD, Dunn I, Grigor K, Underwood MA, Bartlett JM. HER2/neu gene amplification and protein overexpression in G3 pT2 transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: a role for anti- HER2 therapy? Eur J Cancer 2004; 40: 56-63.
102. Rosenberg CL. Polysomy 17 and HER-2 amplification: true, true, and unrelated. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26: 4856-4858
103. Ryan Q, Ibrahim A, Cohen MH, et al. FDA drug approval summary: lapatinib in combination with capecitabine for previously treated metastatic breast cancer that overexpresses HER-2. Oncologist2008; 13: 1114-1119
104. MacLaine NJ, Wood MD, Holder JC, Rees RW, Southgate J. Sensitivity of normal, paramalignant, and malignant human urothelial cells to inhibitors of the epidermal growth factor receptor signaling pathway. Mol Cancer Res 2008; 6: 53-63.
105. McHugh LA, Kriajevska M, Mellon JK, Griffiths TR. Combined treatment of bladder cancer cell lines with lapatinib and varying chemotherapy regimens--evidence of schedule-dependent synergy.Urology 2007; 69: 390-394
106. McHugh LA, Sayan AE, Mejlvang J, et al. Lapatinib, a dual inhibitor of ErbB-1/-2 receptors, enhances effects of combination chemotherapy in bladder cancer cells. Int J Oncol 2009; 34: 1155-1163
107. Wulfing C, Machiels JP, Richel DJ, et al. A single-arm, multicenter, open-label phase 2 study of lapatinib as the second-line treatment of patients with locally advanced or metastatic transitional cell carcinoma. Cancer 2009; 115: 2881-2890
108. Di Leo A, Gomez HL, Aziz Z, et al. Phase III, double-Blind, randomized study comparing Lapatinib plus Paclitaxel with placeboplus Paclitaxel as first-line treatment for metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26: 5544-5552
109. Chodak GW, Scheiner CJ, Zetter BR. Urine from patients with transitional-cell carcinoma stimulates migration of capillary endothelial cells. N Engl J Med 1981; 305: 869-874
110. Bochner BH, Cote RJ, Weidner N, et al. Angiogenesis in bladder cancer: relationship between microvessel density and tumor prognosis. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995; 87: 1603-1612
111. Inoue K, Slaton JW, Davis DW, et al. Treatment of human metastatic transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder in a murine model with the anti-vascular endothelial growth factor receptor monoclonalantibody DC101 and paclitaxel. Clin Cancer Res 2000; 6: 2635-2643 (Pubitemid 30482098)
112. Wu W, Shu X, Hovsepyan H, Mosteller RD, Broek D. VEGF receptor expression and signaling in human bladder tumors. Oncogene 2003; 22: 3361-3370
113. Gallagher DJ, Milowsky MI, Gerst SR, et al. Final results of a phase II study of sunitinib in patients (pts) with relapsed or refractory urothelial carcinoma (UC). J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts) 2008; 26: 5082.
114. Bellmunt J, Maroto P, Mellado B, et al. Phase II study of sunitinib as first line treatment in patients with advanced urothelial cancer ineligible for cisplatin-based chemotherapy. ASCO Genitourinary Cancers Symposium 2008; Abstract 291.
115. Dreicer R, Li H, Stein MN, et al. Phase II trial of sorafenib in advanced carcinoma of the urothelium (E 1804): a trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts) 2008; 26: 5083.
116. Voorhees PM, Dees EC, O'Neil B, Orlowski RZ. The proteasome as a target for cancer therapy. Clin Cancer Res 2003; 9: 6316-6325
117. Richardson PG, Sonneveld P, Schuster M, et al. Extended followup of a phase 3 trial in relapsed multiple myeloma: final time-toevent results of the APEX trial. Blood 2007; 110: 3557-3560
118. San Miguel JF, Schlag R, Khuageva NK, et al. Bortezomib plus melphalan and prednisone for initial treatment of multiple myeloma. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 906-917
119. Kamat AM, Karashima T, Davis DW, et al. The proteasome inhibitor bortezomib synergizes with gemcitabine to block the growth of human 253JB-V bladder tumors in vivo. Mol Cancer Ther 2004; 3: 279-290
120. Rosenberg JE, Halabi S, Sanford BL, et al. Phase II study of bortezomib in patients with previously treated advanced urothelial tract transitional cell carcinoma: CALGB 90207. Ann Oncol 2008; 19: 946-950
121. Gomez-Abuin G, Winquist E, Stadler WM, et al. A phase II study of PS-341 (Bortezomib) in advanced or metastatic urothelial cancer: a trial of the Princess Margaret Hospital and University of Chicago phase II consortia. Invest New Drugs 2007; 25: 181-185
122. Oxford G, Theodorescu D. The role of Ras superfamily proteins in bladder cancer progression. J Urol 2003; 170: 1987-1993
123. Rosenberg JE, von der Maase H, Seigne JD, et al. A phase II trial of R115777, an oral farnesyl transferase inhibitor, in patients with advanced urothelial tract transitional cell carcinoma. Cancer 2005; 103: 2035-2041
124. Downward J. Targeting RAS signalling pathways in cancer therapy. Nat Rev Cancer 2003; 3: 11-22.
125. Petit T, Izbicka E, Lawrence RA, Bishop WR, Weitman S, Von Hoff DD. Activity of SCH 66336, a tricyclic farnesyltransferase inhibitor, against human tumor colony-forming units. Ann Oncol 1999; 10: 449-453 (Pubitemid 29236423)
126. Winquist E, Moore MJ, Chi KN, et al. A multinomial Phase II study of lonafarnib (SCH 66336) in patients with refractory urothelial cancer. Urol Oncol 2005; 23: 143-149
127. Theodore C, Geoffrois L, Vermorken JB, et al. Multicentre EORTC study 16997: feasibility and phase II trial of farnesyl transferase inhibitor & gemcitabine combination in salvage treatment of advanced urothelial tract cancers. Eur J Cancer 2005; 41: 1150-1157
128. Kim TY, Bang YJ, Robertson KD. Histone deacetylase inhibitors for cancer therapy. Epigenetics 2006; 1: 14-23.
129. Esteller M. Epigenetics in cancer. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 1148-1159
130. Karam JA, Fan J, Stanfield J, et al. The use of histone deacetylase inhibitor FK228 and DNA hypomethylation agent 5-azacytidine in human bladder cancer therapy. Int J Cancer 2007; 120: 1795-1802
131. Li GC, Zhang X, Pan TJ, Chen Z, Ye ZQ. Histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A inhibits the growth of bladder cancer cells through induction of p21WAF1 and G1 cell cycle arrest. Int J Urol 2006; 13: 581-586
132. Cheung EM, Quinn DI, Tsao-Wei DD, et al. Phase II study of vorinostat (Suberoylanilide Hydroxamic Acid, SAHA) in patients with advanced transitional cell urothelial cancer (TCC) after platinum- based therapy--California Cancer Consortium/University of Pittsburgh NCI/CTEP-sponsored trial. J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts) 2008; 26: 16058.
133. Kim J, Millikan RE, Smith TL, Tu SM, Pagliaro LC, Logothetis CJ. Treating refractory advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma with interleukin-2: a phase II study. Urol Oncol 2003; 21: 21-26
134. Tomita Y, Matsumoto Y, Nishiyama T, Fujiwara M. Reduction of major histocompatibility complex class I antigens on invasive and high-grade transitional cell carcinoma. J Pathol 1990; 162: 157-164 (Pubitemid 20336827)
135. Elias L, Crissman HA. Interferon effects upon the adenocarcinoma 38 and HL-60 cell lines: antiproliferative responses and synergistic interactions with halogenated pyrimidine antimetabolites. Cancer Res 1988; 48: 4868-73.
136. Sato M, Yoshida H, Urata M, et al. Effects of 5-fluorouracil and the combination of 5-fluorouracil and human leukocyte interferon on human salivary gland adenocarcinoma cell line in culture. Int J Oral Surg 1984; 13: 35-44.
137. Logothetis CJ, Hossan E, Sella A, Dexeus FH, Amato RJ. Fluorouracil and recombinant human interferon alfa-2a in the treatment of metastatic chemotherapy-refractory urothelial tumors. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991; 83: 285-8.
138. Kosmidis PA, Bacoyiannis C, Fountzilas G, et al. 5-Fluorouracil, interferon-alpha-2b and cisplatin (FAP) for advanced urothelial cancer. A phase II study. Hellenic Co-operative Oncology Group. Ann Oncol 1997; 8: 373-8.
139. Bazarbashi S, Pai C, Raja MA, Rahal M, Ezzat A, Hanash K. Phase II trial of cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil, and interferon-alpha-2B as first line treatment of advanced urothelial cancer. Urol Oncol 2003; 21: 185-9.
140. De Mulder PH, Theodore C, Sella A, et al. Phase II EORTC trial with 5-fluorouracil, cisplatin and interferon-alpha as second-line treatment of advanced transitional cell cancer of the urothelial tract. Ann Oncol 2000; 11: 1391-4.
141. Siefker-Radtke AO, Millikan RE, Tu S-M, et al. Phase III trial of Fluorouracil, Interferon Alfa-2b, and Cisplatin versus Methotrexate, Vinblastine, Doxorubicin, and Cisplatin in metastatic or unresectable urothelial cancer. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20: 1361-7.
142. Cheever MA, Greenberg PD, Fefer A, Gillis S. Augmentation of the anti-tumor therapeutic efficacy of long-term cultured T lymphocytes by in vivo administration of purified interleukin 2. J Exp Med 1982; 155: 968-80.
143. Ruscetti FW, Gallo RC. Human T-lymphocyte growth factor: regulation of growth and function of T lymphocytes. Blood 1981; 57: 379-94.
144. Hillner BE, Ingle JN, Berenson JR, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology Guideline on the role of Bisphosphonates in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18: 1378-91.
145. Kyle RA, Yee GC, Somerfield MR, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology 2007 Clinical Practice Guideline Update on the role of Bisphosphonates in multiple myeloma. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 2464-72.
146. Gralow JR. Bisphosphonates as adjuvant treatment for breast cancer. BMJ 2002; 325: 1051-2.
147. Saad F, Gleason DM, Murray R, et al. A randomized, placebocontrolled trial of Zoledronic Acid in patients with hormonerefractory metastatic prostate carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94: 1458-68.
148. Small EJ, Smith MR, Seaman JJ, Petrone S, Kowalski MO. Combined analysis of two multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled studies of pamidronate disodium for the palliation of bone pain in men with metastatic prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 2003; 21: 4277- 84.
149. Sato K, Yuasa T, Nogawa M, et al. A third-generation bisphosphonate, minodronic acid (YM529), successfully prevented the growth of bladder cancer in vitro and in vivo. Br J Cancer 2006; 95: 1354- 61.
150. Inoue K, Karashima T, Fukata S, et al. Effect of combination therapy with a novel bisphosphonate, Minodronate (YM529), and Docetaxel on a model of bone metastasis by human transitional cell carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11: 6669-77.
151. Zaghloul MS, Boutrus R, El-Hosieny H, A-Kader Y, El-Attar I, Nazmy M. A controlled prospective randomized placebo-controlled trial of Zoledronic acid in bony metastatic bladder cancer patients. J Clin Oncol (Meeting Abstracts) 2008; 26: 5033.