The effect and mode of action of saponins on the microbial populations and fermentation in the rumen and ruminant production

Nutrition Research Reviews

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 204-219

  Patra, A K ^a   Saxena, J ^b  

^a WEST BENGAL UNIVERSITY OF ANIMAL AND FISHERY SCIENCES   (India)

^b Coskata ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Mechanisms of action; Microbial ecology; Rumen fermentation; Ruminant production; Saponins

Indexed keywords

AMMONIA; METHANE; NITROGEN; SAPONIN; VOLATILE FATTY ACID; GASTROINTESTINAL AGENT; PLANT EXTRACT; PROTEIN;

ADAPTATION; ADSORPTION; BACTERIUM; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; DIGESTION; DUODENUM; FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS; FERMENTATION; FUNGUS; INTESTINE FLORA; METHANOGEN; METHANOGENESIS; METHANOGENIC ARCHAEON; MICROBIAL METABOLISM; MICROBIAL POPULATION DYNAMICS; NITROGEN METABOLISM; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS; PROTOZOON; REVIEW; RUMINANT STOMACH; ANIMAL; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BOVIDS; CATTLE; CHEMISTRY; DRUG EFFECT; EUKARYOTE; FOOD CONTROL; METABOLISM; MICROBIOLOGY; PLANT;

ANIMALIA; FUNGI; PROTOZOA;

AMMONIA; ANIMALS; BACTERIA; CATTLE; DRUG RESISTANCE, MICROBIAL; EUKARYOTA; FERMENTATION; FOOD MICROBIOLOGY; FUNGI; GASTROINTESTINAL AGENTS; METHANE; PLANT EXTRACTS; PLANTS; PROTEINS; RUMEN; RUMINANTS; SAPONINS;

EID: 77950357849     PISSN: 09544224     EISSN: 14752700     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0954422409990163     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Molyneux RJ, Lee ST, Gardner DR, et al. (2007) Phytochemicals: the good, the bad and the ugly? Phytochemistry 68, 2973-2985.
2. Wallace RJ, McEwan NR, McIntosh FM, et al. (2002) Natural products as manipulators of rumen fermentation. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci 15, 1458-1468.
3. Wallace RJ (2004) Antimicrobial properties of plant secondary metabolites. Proc Nutr Soc 63, 621-629.
4. Patra AK (2004) Inhibition of ciliate protozoa and stimulation of fiber degrading microbes in the rumen of buffaloes by plant secondary metabolites. PhD Thesis, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India.
5. Wina E, Muetzel S & Becker K (2005) The impact of saponins or saponin-containing plant materials on ruminant production - a review. J Agric Food Chem 53, 8093-8105.
6. Benchaar C, Calsamiglia S, Chaves AV, et al. (2008) A review of plant-derived essential oils in ruminant nutrition and production. Anim Feed Sci Technol 145, 209-228.
7. Kamra DN, Patra AK, Chatterjee PN, et al. (2008) Effect of plant extract on methanogenesis and microbial profile of the rumen of buffalo: a brief overview. Aust J Exp Agric 48, 175-178.
8. Patra AK & Saxena J (2009) Dietary phytochemicals as rumen modifiers: a review of the effects on microbial populations. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek 96, 363-375.
9. Barton MD (2000) Antibiotic use in animal feed and its impact on human health. Nutr Res Rev 13, 279-299.
10. Patra AK, Kamra DN & Agarwal N (2006) Effect of plant extracts on in vitro methanogenesis, enzyme activities and fermentation of feed in rumen liquor of buffalo. Anim Feed Sci Technol 128, 276-291.
11. Francis G, Kerem Z, Makkar HPS, et al. (2002) The biological action of saponins in animal systems: a review. Br J Nutr 88, 587-605.
12. Cheeke PR (1996) Biological effects of feed and forage saponins and their impacts on animal production. Adv Exp Med Biol 405, 377-385.
13. Cheeke PR (2000) Actual and potential applications of Yucca schidigera and Quillaja saponaria saponins in human and animal nutrition. J Anim Sci 77, 1-10.
14. Fenwick SB, Price KR, Tsukamoto C, et al. (1992) Saponins. In Toxic Substances in Crop Plants, pp. 285-327 [JPF D'Mello, CM Duffus and JH Duffus, editors]. London: The Royal Society of Chemistry.
15. Hostettmann K & Marston A (1995) Saponins. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
16. Vincken J-P, Heng L, de Groot A, et al. (2007) Saponins, classification and occurrence in the plant kingdom. Phytochemistry 68, 275-297.
17. Klita PT, Mathison GW, Fenton TW, et al. (1996) Effect of alfalfa root saponins on digestive function in sheep. J Anim Sci 74, 1144-1156.
18. Lu CD & Jorgensen NA (1987) Alfalfa saponins affect site and extent of nutrient digestion in ruminants. J Nutr 117, 919-927.
19. Santoso B, Kilmaskossub A & Sambodo P (2007) Effects of saponins from Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch on ruminal fermentation, microbial protein synthesis and nitrogen utilization in goats. Anim Feed Sci Technol 137, 58-68.
20. Leng RA, Bird SH, Klieve A, et al. (1992) Legume trees and other fodder trees as protein sources. In FAO Animal Production and Health Paper no. 102, pp. 177-191 [PL Pugliese, editor]. Rome: FAO.
21. Navas-Camacho A, Laredo MA, Cuesta A, et al. (1993) Effect of supplementation with a tree legume forage on rumen function. Livest Res Rural Develop 5 (epublication: http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd5/navas.htm).
22. Ivan M, Koenig KM, Teferedegne B, et al. (2004) Effect of the dietary Enterolobium cyclocarpum foliage on the population dynamics of rumen ciliate protozoa in sheep. Small Rumin Res 52, 81-91.
23. Baah J, Ivan M, Hristov AN, et al. (2007) Effects of potential dietary antiprotozoal supplements on rumen fermentation and digestibility in heifers. Anim Feed Sci Technol 137, 126-137.
24. Pen B, Takura K, Yamaguchia S, et al. (2007) Effects of Yucca schidigera and Quillaja saponaria with or without b-1,4 galacto-oligosaccharides on ruminal fermentation, methane production and nitrogen utilization in sheep. Anim Feed Sci Technol 138, 75-88.
25. Holtshausen L, Chaves AV, Beauchemin KA, et al. (2009) Feeding saponin-containing Yucca schidigera and Quillaja saponaria to decrease enteric methane production in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 92, 2809-2821.
26. Abreu A, Carulla JE, Lascano CE, et al. (2004) Effects of Sapindus saponaria fruits on ruminal fermentation and duodenal nitrogen flow of sheep fed a tropical grass diet with and without legume. J Anim Sci 82, 1392-1400.
27. Hess HD, Beuret RA, Lotscher M, et al. (2004) Ruminal fermentation, methanogenesis and nitrogen utilization of sheep receiving tropical grass hay-concentrate diets offered with Sapindus saponaria fruits and Cratylia argentea foliage. Anim Sci 79, 177-189.
28. Diaz A, Avendan OM & Escobar A (1993) Evaluation of Sapindus saponaria as a defaunating agent and its effects on different ruminal digestion parameters. Livest Res Rural Develop 5 (epublication: http://www.cipav.org.co/ lrrd/lrrd5/cefe.htm).
29. Valdez FR, Bush LJ, Goetsch AL, et al. (1986) Effect of steroidal sapogenins on rumen fermentation and on production of lactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 69, 1568-1575.
30. Singer MD, Robinson PH, Salem AZM, et al. (2008) Impacts of rumen fluid modified by feeding Yucca schidigera to lactating dairy cows on in vitro gas production of 11 common dairy feedstuffs, as well as animal performance. Anim Feed Sci Technol 146, 242-258.
31. Mader TL & Brumm MC (1987) Effect of feeding sarsaponin in cattle and swine diets. J Anim Sci 65, 9-15.
32. Sliwinski BJ, Kreuzer M, Wettstein HR, et al. (2002) Rumen fermentation and nitrogen balance of lambs fed diets containing plant extracts rich in tannins and saponins and associated emissions of nitrogen and methane. Arch Anim Nutr 56, 379-392.
33. Goetsch AL & Owens FN (1985) Effects of sarsaponin on digestion and passage rates in cattle fed medium to low concentrates. J Dairy Sci 68, 2377-2384.
34. Zinn RA, Alvarez EG, Montano MF, et al. (1998) Influence of tempering on the feeding value of rolled corn in finishing diets for feedlot cattle. J Anim Sci 76, 2239-2246.
35. Santoso B, Mwenya B, Sar C, et al. (2006) Ruminal fermentation and nitrogen metabolism in sheep fed a silagebased diet supplemented with Yucca schidigera or Y. schidigera and nisin. Anim Feed Sci Technol 129, 187-195.
36. Wilson RC, Overton TR & Clark JH (1998) Effects of Yucca schidigera extract and soluble protein on performance of cows and concentrations of urea nitrogen in plasma and milk. J Dairy Sci 81, 1022-1027.
37. Lovett DK, Stack L, Lovell S, et al. (2006) Effect of feeding Yucca schidigera extract on performance of lactating dairy cows and ruminal fermentation parameters in steers. Livest Sci 102, 23-32.
38. Wang CJ, Wang SP & Zhou H (2009) Influences of flavomycin, ropadiar, and saponin on nutrient digestibility, rumen fermentation, and methane emission from sheep. Anim Feed Sci Technol 148, 157-166.
39. Santoso B, Mwenya B, Sar C, et al. (2004) Effects of supplementing galacto-oligosaccharides, Yucca schidigera and nisin on rumen methanogenesis, nitrogen and energy metabolism in sheep. Livest Prod Sci 91, 209-217.
40. Wu Z, Sadik M, Sleiman FT, et al. (1994) Influence of yucca extract on ruminal metabolism in cows. J Anim Sci 72, 1038-1042.
41. Hussain I & Cheeke PR (1995) Effect of dietary Yucca schidigera extract on rumen and blood profiles of steers fed concentrate- or roughage-based diets. Anim Feed Sci Technol 51, 231-242.
42. Benchaar C, McAllister TA & Chouinard PY (2008) Digestion, ruminal fermentation, ciliate protozoal populations, and milk production from dairy cows fed cinnamaldehyde, quebracho condensed tannin, or Yucca schidigera saponin extracts. J Dairy Sci 91, 4765-4777.
43. Hristov AN, McAllister TA, Van Herk FH, et al. (1999) Effect of Yucca schidigera on ruminal fermentation and nutrient digestion in heifers. J Anim Sci 77, 2554-2563.
44. Wallace RJ, Arthaud L & Newbold CJ (1994) Influence of Yucca schidigera extract on ruminal ammonia concentration and ruminal microorganisms. Appl Environ Microbiol 60, 1762-1767.
45. Wang Y, MaAllister TA, Newbold CJ, et al. (1998) Effect of Yucca schidigera extract on fermentation and degradation of steroidal saponins in the rumen simulation technique (RUSITEC). Anim Feed Sci Technol 74, 143-153.
46. Makkar HPS, Sen S, Blümmel M, et al. (1998) Effects of fractions containing saponins from Yucca schidigera, Quillaja saponaria and Acacia auriculoformis on rumen fermentation. J Agric Food Chem 46, 4324-4328.
47. Hristov AN, Ivan M, Neill L, et al. (2003) Evaluation of several potential bioactive agents for reducing protozoal activity in vitro. Anim Feed Sci Technol 105, 163-184.
48. Thalib A, Widiawati Y, Hamid H, et al. (1995) The effects of saponins from Sapindus rarak fruit on rumen microbes and host animal growth. Ann Zootech 44, Suppl., 161.
49. Newbold CJ, Hassan SME, Wang J, et al. (1997) Influence of foliage from African multipurpose tree on activity of rumen protozoa and bacteria. Br J Nutr 78, 237-249.
50. Hu WL, Liu JX, Ye JA, et al. (2005) Effect of tea saponin on rumen fermentation in vitro. Anim Feed Sci Technol 120, 333-339.
51. Guo YQ, Liu J-X, Lu Y, et al. (2008) Effect of tea saponin on methanogenesis, microbial community structure and expression of mcrA gene, in cultures of rumen microorganisms. Lett Appl Microbiol 47, 421-426.
52. Kamra DN, Singh R, Agarwal N, et al. (2000) Soapnut (reetha) as natural defaunating agent - its effect on rumen fermentation and in sacco degradability of jowar hay in buffaloes. Buffalo J 16, 99-104.
53. Monforte-Briceno GE, Sandoval-Castro CA, Ramirez- Aviles L, et al. (2005) Defaunating capacity of tropical fodder trees: effects of polyethylene glycol and its relationship to in vitro gas production. Anim Feed Sci Technol 123-124, 313-327.
54. Agarwal N, Kamra DN, Chaudhary LC, et al. (2006) Effect of Sapindus mukorossi extracts on in vitro methanogenesis and fermentation characteristics in buffalo rumen liquor. J Appl Anim Res 30, 1-4.
55. Pen B, Sar C, Mwenya B, Kuwaki K, et al. (2006) Effects of Yucca schidigera and Quillaja saponaria extracts on in vitro ruminal fermentation and methane emission. Anim Feed Sci Technol 129, 175-186.
56. Teferedegne B, McIntosh F, Osuji PO, et al. (1999) Influence of foliage from different accessions of the subtropical leguminous tree, Sesbania sesban, on ruminal protozoa in Ethiopian and Scottish sheep. Anim Feed Sci Technol 78, 11-20.
57. Hess HD, Kreuzer M, Diaz TE, et al. (2003) Saponin rich tropical fruits affect fermentation and methanogenesis in faunated and defaunated fluid. Anim Feed Sci Technol 109, 79-94.
58. Williams AG & Coleman GS (1997) The rumen protozoa. In The Rumen Microbial Ecosystem, pp. 72-120 [PN Hobson and CS Stewart, editors]. London: Blackie Academic and Professional.
59. Wang Y, McAllister TA, Yanke LJ, et al. (2000) Effect of steroidal saponin from Yucca schidigera extract on ruminal microbes. J Appl Microbiol 88, 887-896.
60. Russell JB & Rychlik J (2001) Factors that alter rumen microbial ecology. Science 292, 1119-1122.
61. Sen S, Makkar HPS, Muetzel S, et al. (1998) Effect of quillaja saponins and Yucca schidigera plant extract on growth of Escherichia coli. Lett Appl Microbiol 27, 35-38.
62. Muetzel S, Hoffmann EM & Becker K (2003) Supplementation of barley straw with Sesbania pachycarpa leaves in vitro, effects on fermentation variables and rumen microbial concentration structure quantified by ribosomal RNA-targeted probes. Br J Nutr 89, 445-453.
63. Wina E, Muetzel S & Becker K (2006) The dynamics of major fibrolytic microbes and enzyme activity in the rumen in response to short- and long-term feeding of Sapindus rarak saponins. J Appl Microbiol 100, 114-122.
64. Wina E, Muetzel S, Hoffmann E, et al. (2005) Saponins containing methanol extract of Sapindus rarak affect microbial fermentation, microbial activity and microbial community structure in vitro. Anim Feed Sci Technol 121, 159-174.
65. Vinogradov E, Egbosimba EE, Perry MB, et al. (2001) Structural analysis of the carbohydrate components of the outer membrane of the lipopolysaccharide- lacking cellulolytic ruminal bacterium Fibrobacter succinogenes S85. Eur J Biochem 268, 3566-3576.
66. Sarkar M, Hamilton CJ & Fairlamb AH (2003) Properties of phosphoenolpyruvate mutase, the first enzyme in the aminoethylphosphonate biosynthetic pathway in Trypanosoma cruzi. J Biol Chem 278, 22703-22708.
67. Hess HD, Monsalve LM, Lascano CE, et al. (2003) Supplementation of a tropical grass diet with forage legumes and Sapindus saponaria fruits: effects on in vitro ruminal nitrogen turnover and methanogenesis. Aust J Agric Res 54, 703-713.
68. Williams AG (1986) Rumen holotrich ciliate protozoa. Microbiol Rev 50, 25-49.
69. Sung WS & Lee DG (2008) The combination effect of Korean red ginseng saponins with kanamycin and cefotaxime against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Biol Pharma Bull 31, 1614-1617.
70. Avato P, Bucci R, Tava A, et al. (2006) Antimicrobial activity of saponins from Medicago sp.: structure-activity relationship. Phytother Res 20, 454-457.
71. Khanna VG & Kannabiran K (2008) Antimicrobial activity of saponin fractions of the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre and Eclipta prostrate. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 24, 2737-2740.
72. Makkar HPS & Becker K (1997) Degradation of Quillaja saponins by mixed culture of rumen microbes. Lett Appl Microbiol 25, 243-245.
73. Li Y, Du Y & Zou C (2009) Effects of pH on antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of tea saponins. Eur Food Res Technol 228, 1023-1028.
74. Barile E, Bonanomi G, Antignani V, et al. (2007) Saponins from Allium minutiflorum with antifungal activity. Photochemistry 68, 596-603.
75. Oleszek WA (2000) Saponins. In Natural Food Antimicrobial Systems, pp. 295-324 [AS Naidu, editor]. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
76. Yang C-R, Zhang Y, Jacob MR, et al. (2006) Antifungal activity of C-27 steroidal saponins. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50, 1710-1714.
77. Teferedegne B (2000) New perspectives on the use of tropical plants to improve ruminant nutrition. Proc Nutr Soc 59, 209-214.
78. Odenyo AA, Osuji PO & Karanfil O (1997) Effect of multipurpose tree (MPT) supplements on ruminal ciliate protozoa. Anim Feed Sci Technol 67, 169-180.
79. Mathison GW, Soofi-Siawah R, Klita PT, et al. (1999) Degradability of alfalfa saponins in the digestive tract of sheep and their rate of accumulation in rumen fluid. Can J Anim Sci 79, 315-319.
80. Ogura S & Sugawara K (1998) The disappearance of white clover saponins with ruminal degradation of white clover leaves. J Japan Soc Grassl Sci 44, 292-293.
81. Chahal SM & Sharma DD (1991) In vitro ruminal degradation of mowrin - an incriminating factor of mahua (Bassia latifolia) seed cake. Indian J Anim Nutr 8, 143-144.
82. Meagher LP, Smith BL &Wilkins AL (2001) Metabolism of diosgenin derived saponins: implications for hepatogenous photosensitization diseases in ruminants. Anim Feed Sci Technol 91, 157-170.
83. Flaoyen A & Wilkins AL (1997) Metabolism of saponins from Narthecium ossifragum - a plant implicated in the aetiology of alveld, a hepatogenous photosensitization of sheep. Vet Res Commun 21, 335-345.
84. Flaoyen A, Wilkins AL, Deng D, et al. (2001) Ovine metabolism of saponins: evaluation of a method for estimating the ovine uptake of steroidal saponins from Narthecium ossifragum. Vet Res Commun 25, 225-238.
85. Flaoyen A, Wilkins AL & Sandvik M (2002) Ruminal metabolism in sheep of saponins from Yucca schidigera. Vet Res Commun 26, 159-169.
86. Wang YX, McAllister TA, Yanke LJ, et al. (2000) In vitro effects of steroidal saponins from Yucca schidigera extract on rumen microbial protein synthesis and ruminal fermentation. J Sci Food Agric 80, 2114-2122.
87. Lila ZA, Mohammed N, Kanda S, et al. (2003) Effect of sarsaponin on rumen fermentation with particular reference to methane production in vitro. J Dairy Sci 86, 3330-3336.
88. Busquet M, Calsamiglia S, Ferret A, et al. (2006) Plant extracts affect in vitro rumen microbial fermentation. J Dairy Sci 89, 761-771.
89. Ye JA, Liu J, Shi ZQ, et al. (2001) Effect of theasaponin on fermentation of cultured rumen fluid. Chinese J Anim Sci 37, 29-30.
90. Devant M, Anglada A & Bach A (2007) Effects of plant extract supplementation on rumen fermentation and metabolism in young Holstein bulls consuming high levels of concentrate. Anim Feed Sci Technol 137, 46-57.
91. Kil JY, Cho NK, Kim BS, et al. (1994) Effects of Yucca extract addition on the in vitro fermentation characteristics of feed and feces, and on the milk yields in lactating cows. Korean J Anim Sci 36, 698-709.
92. Cardozo PW, Calsamiglia S, Ferret A, et al. (2005) Screening for the effects of natural plant extracts at different pH on in vitro rumen microbial fermentation of a highconcentrate diet for beef cattle. J Anim Sci 83, 2572-2579.
93. Finlay BJ, Esteban G, Clarke KJ, et al. (1994) Some rumen ciliates have endosymbiotic methanogens. FEMS Microbiol Lett 117, 157-162.
94. Tokura M, Ushida K, Miyazaki K, et al. (1997) Methanogens associated with rumen ciliates. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 22, 137-143.
95. Goel G, Makkar HPS & Becker K (2008) Effect of Sesbania sesban and Carduus pycnocephalus leaves and fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) seeds and their extracts on partitioning of nutrient from roughage and concentrate based feeds to methane. Anim Feed Sci Technol 147, 72-89.
96. Russell JB & Wilson DB (1996) Why are ruminal cellulolytic bacteria unable to digest cellulose at low pH? J Dairy Sci 79, 1503-1509.
97. Dijkstra J & Tamminga S (1995) Simulation of the effects of diet on the contribution of rumen protozoa to degradation of fibre in the rumen. Br J Nutr 74, 617-634.
98. Wallace RJ & McPherson CA (1987) Factors affecting the rate of breakdown of bacterial protein in rumen fluid. Br J Nutr 58, 313-323.
99. Veira DM, Ivan M & Jui PY (1983) Rumen ciliate protozoa: effects on digestion in the stomach of sheep. J Dairy Sci 66, 1015-1022.
100. Ellenberger MA, Rumpler WV, Johnson DE, et al. (1985) Evaluation of the extent of ruminal urease inhibition by sarsaponin and sarsaponin fractions. J Anim Sci 61, Suppl. 1, 491.
101. Chesson A & Forsberg CW (1997) Polysaccharide degradation by rumen microorganisms. In The Rumen Microbial Ecosystem, pp. 467-491 [PN Hobson and CS Stewart, editors]. London: Blackie Academic and Professonal.
102. Trinci APJ, Davies DR, Gull K, et al. (1994) Anaerobic fungi in herbivorous animals. Mycol Res 98, 129-152.
103. Forsberg CW & Cheng K-J (1992) Molecular strategies to optimize forage and cereal digestion by ruminants. In Biotechnology and Nutrition, pp. 107-147 [DD Bills and SD Kung, editors]. Stoneham, UK: Butterworth Heinmann.
104. Lee SS, Ha JK & Cheng KJ (2000) Relative contributions of bacteria, protozoa and fungi to in vitro degradation of orchard grass cell walls and their interactions. Appl Environ Microbiol 66, 3807-3813.
105. Killeen GF, Madigan CA, Connolly CR, et al. (1998) Antimicrobial saponins of Yucca schidigera and the implications of their in vitro properties for their in vivo impact. J Agric Food Chem 46, 3178-3186.
106. Johnson IT, Gee JM, Price K, et al. (1986) Influence of saponins on gut permeability and active nutrient transport in vitro. J Nutr 116, 2270-2277.
107. Knudsen D, Jutfelt F, Sundh H, et al. (2008) Dietary soya saponins increase gut permeability and play a key role in the onset of soyabean-induced enteritis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Br J Nutr 100, 120-129.
108. Oleszek W, Nowacka J, Gee JM, et al. (1994) Effects of some purified alfalfa (Medicago sativa) saponins on transmural potential difference in mammalian small intestine. J Sci Food Agric 65, 35-39.
109. Gabel G & Sehested J (1997) SCFA transport in the forestomach of ruminants. Comp Biochem Physiol 118A, 367-374.
110. Wolin MJ, Miller TL & Stewart CS (1997) Microbe- microbe interactions. In The Rumen Microbial Ecosystem, pp. 467-491 [PN Hobson and CS Stewart, editors]. London: Blackie Academic and Professonal.
111. Sharp R, Ziemer CJ, Stern MD, et al. (1998) Taxon-specific associations between protozoal and methanogen populations in the rumen and a model rumen system. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 26, 71-78.
112. Kim SH, Parajuli SP, Yeum CH, et al. (2007) Effects of ginseng total saponins on pacemaker currents of interstitial cells of cajal from the small intestine of mice. Biol Pharm Bull 30, 2037-2042.
113. De Smet S, Demeyer DI & van Nevel CJ (1992) Effect of defaunation and hay:concentrate ratio on fermentation, fibre digestion and passage in the rumen of sheep. Anim Feed Sci Technol 37, 333-344.
114. Eugene M, Archimede H & Sauvant D (2004) Quantitative meta-analysis on the effects of defaunation of the rumen on growth, intake and digestion in ruminants. Livest Prod Sci 85, 81-97.
115. Thalib A,Widiawati Y, Hamis H, et al. (1996) The effects of saponin from Sapindus rarak fruit on rumen microbes and performance of sheep. J Ilmu Ternak-dan Veteriner 2, 17-21.
116. Mirza IH, Khan AG, Azim A, et al. (2002) Effect of supplementing grazing cattle calves with urea-molasses blocks, with and without Yucca schidigera extract, on performance and carcass traits. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci 15, 1300-1306.
117. Gorgulu M, Yurtseven S, Unsal I, et al. (2004) Effect of Yucca powder on fattening performance of male lambs. J Appl Anim Res 25, 33-36.
118. Bosler DA, Blummel M, Bullerdieck P, et al. (1997) Influence of a saponin-containing feed additive on mass development and carcass evaluation of growing lambs. Proc Soc Nutr Physiol 6, 46.
119. Sliwinski BJ, Kreuzer M, Sutter F, et al. (2004) Performance, body nitrogen conversion and nitrogen emission from manure of dairy cows fed diets supplemented with different plant extracts. J Anim Feed Sci 13, 73-91.