A global comparison of plant invasions on oceanic islands

Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 145-161

  Kueffer, Christoph ^a,b   Daehler, Curtis C ^a   Torres Santana, Christian W ^a   Lavergne, Christophe ^c   Meyer, Jean Yves ^d   Otto, Rüdiger ^e   Silva, Luís ^f  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

^b ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^c Conservatoire Botanique National de Mascarin ^*  (France)

^d Delegation a la Recherche   (French Polynesia)

^e UNIVERSIDAD DE LA LAGUNA   (Spain)

^f UNIVERSITY OF THE AZORES   (Portugal)

Author keywords

Biogeography; Biotic homogenization; Invasiveness; Rank abundance curve; Risk assessment; Species richness

Indexed keywords

ABUNDANCE; DATA SET; HOMOGENEITY; INVASIVE SPECIES; ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY; RISK ASSESSMENT; SPECIES RICHNESS;

MYCTEROPERCA FUSCA;

EID: 77950297309     PISSN: 14338319     EISSN: 16180437     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ppees.2009.06.002     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Amsellem L., Noyer J.L., Le Bourgeois T., and Hossaert-McKey M. Comparison of genetic diversity of the invasive weed Rubus alceifolius Poir. (Rosaceae) in its native range and in areas of introduction, using AFLP markers. Mol. Ecol. 9 (2000) 433-455
2. Arteaga M.A., Delgado J.D., Otto R., Fernández-Palacios J.M., and Arévalo J.R. How do alien plants distribute along roads on oceanic islands? A case study in Tenerife, Canary Islands. Biol. Invasions 11 (2009) 1071-1086
3. Ashmole P., and Ashmole M. St. Helena and Ascension Island: A Natural History (2000), Anthony Nelson, Oswestry, UK
4. Baret S., Rouget M., Richardson D.M., Lavergne C., Egoh B., Dupont J., and Strasberg D. Current distribution and potential extent of the most invasive alien plant species on La Réunion (Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands). Austral Ecol. 31 (2006) 747-758
5. Bellingham P.J., Tanner E.V.J., and Healey J.R. Hurricane disturbance accelerate invasion by the alien tree Pittosporum undulatum in Jamaican montane rain forests. J. Veg. Sci. 16 (2005) 675-684
6. Castro S.A., and Jaksic F.M. Role of non-established plants in determining biotic homogenization patterns in Pacific Oceanic Islands. Biol. Invasions 10 (2008) 1299-1309
7. Castro S.A., Muñoz M., and Jaksic F.M. Transit towards floristic homogenization on oceanic islands in the south-eastern Pacific: comparing pre-European and current floras. J. Biogeogr. 34 (2007) 213-222
8. Chown S.L., Hull B., and Gaston K.J. Human impacts, energy availability and invasion across Southern Ocean Islands. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 14 (2005) 521-528
9. CIA. The World Factbook (2006), Potomac Books, Washington, DC
10. Courchamp F., Chapuis J.-L., and Pascal M. Mammal invaders on islands: impact, control and control impact. Biol. Rev. 78 (2003) 347-383
11. Cronk Q.C.B. The past and present vegetation of St. Helena. J. Biogeogr. 16 (1989) 47-64
12. Cronk Q.C.B., and Fuller J.L. Plant Invaders (1995), Chapman & Hall, London
13. Cruttwell McFadyen R.E. Biological control of weeds. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 43 (1998) 369-393
14. Cuevas J.G., and Le Quesne C. Low vegetation recovery after short-term cattle exclusion on Robinson Crusoe Island. Plant Ecol. 183 (2006) 105-124
15. D'Antonio C.M., and Vitousek P.M. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass fire cycle, and global change. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 23 (1992) 63-87
16. Daehler C. Short lag times for invasive tropical plants: evidence from experimental plantings in Hawai'i. PLoS One 4 (2009) e4462
17. Daehler C.C. The taxonomic distribution of invasive angiosperm plants: ecological insights and comparison to agricultural weeds. Biol. Conserv. 84 (1998) 167-180
18. Daehler C.C. Darwin's naturalization hypothesis revisited. Am. Nat. 158 (2001) 324-330
19. Daehler C.C. Performance comparisons of co-occurring native and alien invasive plants: implications for conservation and restoration. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 34 (2003) 183-211
20. Daehler C.C. Upper-montane plant invasions in the Hawaiian Islands: patterns and opportunities. Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst. 7 (2005) 203-216
21. Daehler C.C. Invasibility of tropical islands by introduced plants: partitioning the influence of isolation and propagule pressure. Preslia 78 (2006) 389-404
22. Daehler C.C. Invasive plant problems in the Hawaiian Islands and beyond: insights from history and psychology. In: Tokarska-Guzik B., Brock J.H., Brundu G., Child L., Daehler C.C., and Pyšek P. (Eds). Plant Invasions: Human Perception, Ecological Impacts and Management (2008), Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands 3-20
23. Daehler C.C., and Carino D. Hybridization between native and alien plants and its consequences. In: Lockwood J.L., and McKinney M. (Eds). Biotic Homogenization (2001), Kluwer, New York 81-102
24. Denslow J.S. Weeds in paradise: thoughts on the invasibility of tropical islands. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 90 (2003) 119-127
25. Denslow J.S., Space J.C., and Thomas P.A. Invasive exotic plants in the tropical pacific islands: patterns of diversity. Biotropica 41 (2009) 162-170
26. DeWalt S.J., Denslow J.S., and Ickes K. Natural-enemy release facilitates habitat expansion of the invasive tropical shrub Clidemia hirta. Ecology 85 (2004) 471-483
27. DeWalt S.J., and Hamrick J.L. Genetic variation of introduced Hawaiian and native Costa Rican populations of an invasive tropical shrub, Clidemia hirta (Melastomataceae). Am. J. Bot. 91 (2004) 1155-1162
28. Dietz H., Wirth L.R., and Buschmann H. Variation in herbivore damage to invasive and native woody plant species in open forest vegetation on Mahé, Seychelles. Biol. Invasions 6 (2004) 511-521
29. Dirnböck T., Greimler J., Lopez P., and Stuessy T.F. Predicting future threats to the native vegetation of Robinson Crusoe Island, Juan Fernandez Archipelago, Chile. Conserv. Biol. 17 (2003) 1650-1659
30. Duarte M.C., Rego F., Romeiras M.M., and Moreira I. Plant species richness in the Cape Verde Islands - eco-geographical determinants. Biodiv. Conserv. 17 (2008) 453-466
31. Fowler S.V., Ganshan S., Mauremootoo J., and Mungroo Y. Biological control of weeds in Mauritius: past successes revisited and present challenges. In: Spencer N.R. (Ed). Proceedings of the X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, 4-14 July 1999 (2000), Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA 43-50
32. Frenot Y., Chown S.L., Whinam J., Selkirk P.M., Convey P., Skotnicki M., and Bergstrom D.M. Biological invasions in the Antarctic: extent, impacts and implications. Biol. Rev. 80 (2005) 45-72
33. Furrer, R., Nychka, D., Sain, S., 2009. fields: Tools for spatial data. R package version 5.02. URL: 〈http://www.image.ucar.edu/Software/Fields〉.
34. Greimler J., Stuessy T.F., Swenson U., Baeza C.M., and Matthei O. Plant invasions on an oceanic archipelago. Biol. Invasions 4 (2002) 73-85
35. Hazell S.P., Vel T., and Fellowes M.D.E. The role of exotic plants in the invasion of Seychelles by the polyphagous insect Aleurodicus dispersus: a phylogenetically controlled analysis. Biol. Invasions 10 (2008) 169-175
36. Herben T. Species pool size and invasibility of island communities: a null model of sampling effects. Ecol. Lett. 8 (2005) 909-917
37. 2-fixing tree alters function and structure in wet lowland forests of Hawai'i. Ecol. Appl. 15 (2005) 1615-1628
38. Imada, C.T., Staples, G.W., Herbst, D.R., 2006. Annotated Checklist of Cultivated Plants of Hawai'i. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, USA. URL: 〈http://www2.bishopmuseum.org/HBS/botany/cultivatedplants/?pg=scope 〉.
39. Jäger H., Tye A., and Kowarik I. Tree invasion in naturally treeless environments: impacts of quinine (Cinchona pubescens) trees on native vegetation in Galápagos. Biol. Conserv. 140 (2007) 297-307
40. Jaramillo P., Guézou A., Mauchamp A., and Tye A. List of Known Vascular Plant Species from the Galapagos Islands (2008), Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos
41. Kairo, M., Ali, B., Cheesman, O., Haysom, K., Murphy, S., 2003. Invasive Species Threats in the Caribbean Region - Report to The Nature Conservancy. CAB International, Curepe, Trinidad and Tobago & Egham, UK.
42. Kingston N., and Waldren S. The plant communities and environmental gradients of Pitcairn Island: the significance of invasive species and the need for conservation management. Ann. Bot. 92 (2003) 31-40
43. Kreft H., Jetz W., Mutke J., Kier G., and Barthlott W. Global diversity of island floras from a macroecological perspective. Ecol. Lett. 11 (2008) 116-127
44. Kueffer C. Integrative ecological research: case-specific validation of ecological knowledge for environmental problem solving. Gaia 15 (2006) 115-120
45. Kueffer, C., 2009. Reduced risk for positive soil-feedback on seedling regeneration by invasive trees on a very nutrient-poor soil in Seychelles. Biol. Invasions, in press, doi:10.1007/s10530-009-9433-4.
46. Kueffer C., and Daehler C. A habitat-classification framework and typology for understanding, valuing and managing invasive species impacts. In: Inderjit (Ed). Management of Invasive Weeds (2009), Springer, Berlin 77-101
47. Kueffer C., and Hirsch Hadorn G. How to achieve effectiveness in problem-oriented landscape research - the example of research on biotic invasions. Living Rev. Landscape Res. 2 (2008) 2. 〈http://www.livingreviews.org/lrlr-2008-2〉
48. Kueffer C., Klingler G., Zirfass K., Schumacher E., Edwards P., and Güsewell S. Invasive trees show only weak potential to impact nutrient dynamics in phosphorus-poor tropical forests in the Seychelles. Funct. Ecol. 22 (2008) 359-366
49. Kueffer, C., Kronauer, L., Edwards, P.J., 2009. Wider spectrum of fruit traits in invasive than native floras may increase the vulnerability of oceanic islands to plant invasions. Oikos, Early View. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2009.17185.x.
50. Kueffer, C., Lavergne, C., 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean. 4. Réunion. Forest Health & Biosecurity Working Papers FBS/4-4E Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
51. In: Kueffer C., and Loope L.L. (Eds). Prevention, Early Detection and Containment of Invasive, Non-Native Plants in the Hawaiian Islands: Current Efforts and Needs (2009), Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Honolulu, HI, USA
52. Kueffer, C., Mauremootoo, J., 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean. 3. Mauritius (Islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues). Forest Health and Biosecurity Working Papers FBS/4-3E Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
53. Kueffer C., Schumacher E., Fleischmann K., Edwards P.J., and Dietz H. Strong belowground competition shapes tree regeneration in invasive Cinnamomum verum forests. J. Ecol. 95 (2007) 273-282
54. Kueffer, C., Vos, P., 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean: 5. Seychelles. Forest Health and Biosecurity Working Papers FBS/4-5E Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
55. Kueffer, C., Vos, P., Lavergne, C., Mauremootoo, J., 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean. 1. Synthesis. Forest Health and Biosecurity Working Papers FBS/4-1E Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
56. Lambdon P.W., and Hulme P.E. How strongly do interactions with closely-related native species influence plant invasions? Darwin's naturalization hypothesis assessed on Mediterranean islands. J. Biogeogr. 33 (2006) 1116-1125
57. Lambdon P.W., Lloret F., and Hulme P.E. Do alien plants on Mediterranean islands tend to invade different niches from native species?. Biol. Invasions 10 (2008) 703-716
58. Lambrinos J.G. The expansion history of a sexual and asexual species of Cortaderia in California, USA. J. Ecol. 89 (2001) 88-98
59. Le Roux J.J., Wieczorek A.M., and Meyer J.-Y. Genetic diversity and structure of the invasive tree Miconia calvescens in Pacific islands. Divers. Distribut. 14 (2008) 935-948
60. Le Roux J.J., Wieczorek A.M., Wright M.G., and Tran C.T. Super-genotype: global monoclonality defies the odds of nature. PLoS One 2 (2007) e590
61. Lindskog P.A., and Delaite B. Degrading land: an environmental history perspective of the Cape Verde Islands. Environ. History 2 (1996) 271-290
62. Lloret F., Médail F., Brundu G., Camarda I., Moragues E., Rita J., Lambdon P., and Hulme P.E. Species attributes and invasion success by alien plants on Mediterranean islands. J. Ecol. 93 (2005) 512-520
63. Lloret F., Médail F., Brundu G., and Hulme P.E. Local and regional abundance of exotic plant species on Mediterranean islands: are species traits important?. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 13 (2004) 37-45
64. Lockwood J.L., Cassey P., and Blackburn T. The role of propagule pressure in explaining species invasions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 20 (2005) 223-228
65. Lonsdale W.M. Global patterns of plant invasions and the concept of invasibility. Ecology 80 (1999) 1522-1536
66. Lugo A.E. The outcome of alien tree invasions in Puerto Rico. Frontiers Ecol. Environ. 2 (2004) 265-273
67. Mack R.N., Simberloff D., Lonsdale W.M., Evans H.C., Clout M., and Bazzaz F.A. Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences and control. Ecol. Appl. 10 (2000) 689-710
68. Martin P.H., Sherman R.E., and Fahey T.J. Tropical montane forest ecotones: climate gradients, natural disturbance, and vegetation zonation in the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. J. Biogeogr. 34 (2007) 1792-1806
69. Mascaro J., Becklund K.K., Hughes R.F., and Schnitzer S.A. Limited native plant regeneration in novel, exotic-dominated forests on Hawai'i. For. Ecol. Manage. 256 (2008) 593-606
70. Mauchamp A. Threats from alien plant species in the Galápagos Islands. Conserv. Biol. 11 (1997) 260-263
71. Merlin M.D., and Juvik J.O. Relationships among native and alien plants on Pacific Islands with and without significant human disturbance and feral ungulates. In: Stone C.P., Smith C.W., and Tunison J.T. (Eds). Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawaii (1992), Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, USA 625-665
72. Meyer J.-Y. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley G. (Ed). Invasive Species in the Pacific: A Technical Review and Draft Regional Strategy (2000), SPREP, Apia, Samoa 85-114
73. Meyer J.-Y. Threat of invasive alien plants to native flora and forest vegetation of Eastern Polynesia. Pac. Sci. 58 (2004) 357-375
74. Meyer, J.-Y., 2008. Rapport de mission d'expertise à Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 juin 2008: plan d'action stratégique pour lutter contre les plantes envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de Pâques). Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Délégation à la Recherche, Papeete, France.
75. Meyer J.-Y., and Florence J. Tahiti's native flora endangered by the invasion of Miconia calvescens DC. (Melastomataceae). J. Biogeogr. 23 (1996) 775-783
76. Meyer J.-Y., and Lavergne C. Beautés fatales: Acanthaceae species as invasive alien plants on tropical Indo-Pacific Islands. Divers. Distribut. 10 (2004) 333-347
77. Meyer J.-Y., Lavergne C., and Hodel D.R. Time bombs in gardens: invasive ornamental palms in tropical islands, with emphasis on French Polynesia (Pacific Ocean) and the Mascarenes (Indian Ocean). Palms 52 (2008) 23-35
78. Meyer J.Y. Observations on the reproductive biology of Miconia calvescens DC (Melastomataceae), an alien invasive tree on the island of Tahiti (South Pacific Ocean). Biotropica 30 (1998) 609-624
79. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis (2005), World Resources Institute, Washington, DC
80. In: Mooney H.A., Mack R.N., McNeely J.A., Neville L.E., Schei P.J., and Waage J.K. (Eds). Invasive Alien Species. A New Synthesis (2005), Island Press, Washington, DC
81. Mueller-Dombois D. Forest vegetation across the tropical Pacific: a biogeographically complex region with many analogous environments. Plant Ecol. 163 (2002) 155-176
82. Mueller-Dombois D. Pacific island forests: successionally impoverished and now threatened to be overgrown by aliens?. Pac. Sci. 62 (2008) 303-308
83. Mueller-Dombois D., and Fosberg F.R. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands (1998), Springer, New York
84. National Academies of Sciences. Predicting Invasions of Nonindigenous Plants and Plant Pests (2002), National Academy Press, Washington, DC
85. Oksanen, J., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., O'Hara. B., Simpson, G.L., Solymos, P., Steven, M.H.H., Wagner, H., 2008. vegan: Community Ecology Package. R package version 1.15-1. URL: 〈http://www.R-project.org〉.
86. Peel M.C., Finlayson B.L., and McMahon T.A. Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 11 (2007) 1633-1644
87. Price J.P. Floristic biogeography of the Hawaiian Islands: influences of area, environment and paleogeography. J. Biogeogr. 31 (2004) 487-500
88. Pyšek P., and Richardson D.M. The biogeography of naturalization in alien plants. J. Biogeogr. 33 (2006) 2040-2050
89. R Development Core Team, 2008. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL: 〈http://www.R-project.org〉.
90. Randall R.P. A Global Compendium of Weeds (2002), RG and FJ Richardson Publisher, Australia
91. Reaser J.K., Meyerson L.A., Cronk Q., De Poorter M., Eldrege L.G., Green E., Kairo M., Latasi P., Mack R.N., Mauremootoo J., O'Dowd D., Orapa W., Sastroutomo S., Saunders A., Shine C., Thrainsson S., and Vaiutu L. Ecological and socioeconomic impacts of invasive alien species in island ecosystems. Environ. Conserv. 34 (2007) 98-111
92. Richardson D.M. Forestry trees as invasive aliens. Conserv. Biol. 12 (1998) 18-26
93. Richardson D.M., Allsopp N., D'Antonio C.M., Milton S.J., and Rejmanek M. Plant invasions - the role of mutualisms. Biol. Rev. 75 (2000) 65-93
94. Richardson D.M., and Pyšek P. Plant invasions: merging the concepts of species invasiveness and community invasibility. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 30 (2006) 409-431
95. Richardson D.M., Pyšek P., Rejmánek M., Barbour M.G., Panetta F.D., and West C.J. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Divers. Distribut. 6 (2000) 93-107
96. Sax D.F., and Gaines S.D. Species invasions and extinction: the future of native biodiversity on islands. PNAS 105 (2008) 11490-11497
97. Sax D.F., Gaines S.D., and Brown J.H. Species invasions exceed extinctions on islands worldwide: a comparative study of plants and birds. Am. Nat. 160 (2002) 766-783
98. Schumacher, E., Kueffer, C., Edwards, P.J., Dietz, H., 2009. Influence of light and nutrient conditions on seedling growth of native and invasive trees in the Seychelles. Biol. Invasions, in press, doi:10.1007/s10530-008-9371-6.
99. Schumacher E., Kueffer C., Tobler M., Gmür V., Edwards P.J., and Dietz H. Influence of drought and shade on seedling growth of native and invasive trees in the Seychelles. Biotropica 40 (2008) 543-549
100. In: Silva L., Ojeda Land E., and Rodríguez Luengo J.L. (Eds). Invasive Terrestrial Flora and Fauna of Macaronesia. Top 100 in Azores, Madeira and Canaries (2008), ARENA, Ponta Delgada, Portugal
101. Silva L., and Smith C.W. A characterization of the non-indigenous flora of the Azores. Biol. Invasions 6 (2004) 193-204
102. Silva L., and Smith C.W. A quantitative approach to the study of non-indigenous plants: an example from the Azores Archipelago. Biodiv. Conserv. 15 (2006) 1661-1679
103. Strasberg D., Rouget M., Richardson D.M., Baret S., Dupont J., and Cowling R.M. An assessment of habitat diversity and transformation on La Réunion Island (Mascarene Islands, Indian Ocean) as a basis for identifying broad-scale conservation priorities. Biodiv. Conserv. 14 (2005) 3015-3032
104. Strayer D.L., Eviner V.T., Jeschke J.M., and Pace M.L. Understanding the long-term effects of species invasions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21 (2006) 645-651
105. Tassin J., Lavergne C., Muller S., Blanfort V., Baret S., Le Bourgeois T., Triolo J., and Rivière J.-N. Bilan des connaissances sur les conséquences écologiques des invasions de plants à l'île de La Réunion (Archipel des Mascareignes, Océan Indien). Rev. Écol. (Terre Vie) 61 (2006) 35-52
106. Thompson J., Lugo A.E., and John Thomlinson J. Land use history, hurricane disturbance, and the fate of introduced species in a subtropical wet forest in Puerto Rico. Plant Ecol. 192 (2007) 289-301
107. Thompson K., Hodgson J.G., and Rich T.C.G. Native and alien invasive plants: more of the same?. Ecography 18 (1995) 390-402
108. Triantis K.A., Mylonas M., Lika K., and Vardinoyannis K. A model for the species-area-habitat relationship. J. Biogeogr. 30 (2003) 19-27
109. Tye A. Can we infer island introduction and naturalization rates data? Evidence from introduced plants in Galapagos. Biol. Invasions 8 (2006) 201-215
110. Varnham K. Non-Native Species in UK Overseas Territories: A Review. Annex 4 (2005), Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), Peterborough, UK
111. Vitousek P.M. Biological invasions and ecosystem processes: towards an integration of population biology and ecosystem studies. Oikos 57 (1990) 7-13
112. Weber E. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds (2003), CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK; Cambridge, USA
113. Weber E.F. The alien flora of Europe: a taxonomic and biogeographic review. J. Veg. Sci. 8 (1997) 565-572
114. Wester L. Origin and distribution of adventive alien flowering plants in Hawai'i. In: Stone C.P., Smith C.W., and Tunison J.T. (Eds). Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawaii: Management and Research (1992), Cooperative Park Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, USA 99-154
115. Whittaker R.J., and Fernández-Palacios J.M. Island Biogeography. Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation. second ed (2006), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
116. Wilkinson S.R., Naeth M.A., and Schmiegelow F.K.A. Tropical forest restoration within Galapagos National Park: application of a state-transition model. Ecol. Soc. 10 1 (2005) 28. [online]. URL: 〈http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss21/art28/〉
117. Woodcock D. To restore the watersheds: early twentieth-century tree planting in Hawai'i. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 93 (2003) 624-635