Species invasions exceed extinctions on islands worldwide: A comparative study of plants and birds

American Naturalist

Volumn 160, Issue 6, 2002, Pages 766-783

  Sax, Dov F ^a   Gaines, Steven D ^a   Brown, James H ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO   (United States)

Author keywords

Birds; Ecosystem stability; Extinctions; Naturalized species; Plants; Species richness

Indexed keywords

AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; BIOLOGICAL INVASION; ECOLOGICAL STABILITY; EXTINCTION; ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY; MACROECOLOGY; PLANT;

AVES; TRACHEOPHYTA;

EID: 0036924802     PISSN: 00030147     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/343877     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Anderson, A. 1996. Discovery of a prehistoric habitation site on Norfolk Island. Journal of the Polynesian Society 105:479-486.
2. Angermeier, P. L. 1994. Does biodiversity include artificial diversity? Conservation Biology 8:600-602.
3. Ashmole, N. P., and M. J. Ashmole. 1997. The land fauna of Ascension Island: New data from caves and lava flows, and a reconstruction of the prehistoric ecosystem. Journal of Biogeography 24:549-589.
4. Atkinson, I. A. E., and E. K. Cameron. 1993. Human influence on the terrestrial biota and biotic communities of New Zealand. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8:447-451.
5. Bailey, E. 1977. The Christmas Island Story. Stacey, London.
6. Beckon, W. N. 1993. The effect of insularity on the diversity of land birds in the Fiji Islands: Implications for refuge design. Oecologia (Berlin) 94:318-329.
7. Bishop Museum. 1999. Hawaiian flowering plant checklist database. http://www.bishopmuseum.org/bishop/HBS/plantchecksearch.html.
8. Blair, M. 1989. The RAFOS expedition to Ascension Island. Royal Air Force Ornithological Society 19:1-35.
9. Brooke, R. K., J. L. Lockwood, and M. P. Moulton. 1995. Patterns of success in passeriform bird introductions on Saint Helena. Oecologia (Berlin) 103:337-342.
10. Brown, J. H. 1995. Macroecology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
11. Brown, J. H., S. K. M. Ernest, J. M. Parody, and J. P. Haskell. 2001. Regulation of diversity: Maintenance of species richness in changing environments. Oecologia (Berlin) 126:321-332.
12. Burrows, C. J. 1995. A macrofossil flora from sediments in a lagoon marginal to Lake Coleridge, Canterbury, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 33:519-522.
13. _. 1997a. An interglacial macrofossil flora from Schulz Creek, north Westland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 35:187-194.
14. _. 1997b. A macrofossil flora from early Aranuian lake-bed deposits, Doubtful River, Waiau-uha catchment, North Canterbury, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 35:545-553.
15. Burrows, C. J., P. Randall, N. T. Moar, and B. G. Butterfield. 1993. Aranuian vegetation history or the Arrowsmith Range, Canterbury, New Zealand. III. Vegetation changes in the Cameron, upper South Ashburton, and Paddle Hill Creek catchments. New Zealand Journal of Botany 31:147-174.
16. Campbell, H. J. 1998. Fauna and flora of the Chatham Islands: Less than 4 m.y. old? Geology and Genes 97:15-16.
17. Carlton, J. T. 1979. Introduced invertebrates of San Francisco Bay. Pages 427-444 in T. J. Conomos, ed. San Francisco Bay, the Urbanized Estuary. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Pacific Division, San Francisco.
18. _. 1996. Biological invasions and cryptogenic species. Ecology 77:1653-1655.
19. Case, T. J. 1996. Global patterns in the establishment and distribution of exotic birds. Biological Conservation 78:69-96.
20. Case, T. J., and D. T. Bolger. 1991. The role of introduced species in shaping the abundance and distribution of island reptiles. Evolutionary Ecology 5:272-290.
21. Cassels, R. 1984. The role of prehistoric man in the faunal extinctions of New Zealand and other Pacific Islands. Pages 741-767 in P. S. Martin and R. G. Klein, eds. Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
22. Chaloupka, M. Y., and S. B. Domm. 1986. Role of anthropochory in the invasion of coral cays by alien flora. Ecology 67:1536-1547.
23. Cheke, A. S. 1987. An ecological history of the Mascarene Islands, with particular reference to extinctions and introductions of land vertebrates. Pages 5-89 in A. W. Diamond, ed. Mascarene Island birds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
24. Chown, S. L., N. J. M. Gremmen, and K. J. Gaston. 1998. Ecological biogeography of southern ocean islands: Species-area relationships, human impacts, and conservation. American Naturalist 152:562-575.
25. Clarkson, B. R., B. D. Clarkson, and R. N. Patel. 1992. The pre-Taupo eruption (c. AD 130) forest of the Benneydale-Pureora district, central North Island, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 22:61-76.
26. Clarkson, B. R., M. S. McGlone, D. J. Lowe, and B. D. Clarkson. 1995. Macrofossils and pollen representing forests of the pre-Taupo volcanic eruption (c. 1850 yr BP) era at Pureora and Benneydale, central North Island, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 25:263-281.
27. Crawley, M. J. 1997. Biodiversity. Pages 595-632 in M. J. Crawley, ed. Plant Ecology. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
28. D'Antonio, C. M., and P. M. Vitousek. 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23:63-87.
29. Diamond, J. M., and C. R. Veitch. 1981. Extinctions and introductions of the New Zealand avifauna: Cause and effect? Science (Washington, D.C.) 211:499-501.
30. Du Puy, D. J. 1993. Christmas Island. Flora of Australia 50:1-30.
31. Ebenhard, T. 1988. Introduced birds and mammals and their ecological effects. Swedish Wildlife Research 13:1-107.
32. Eldredge, L. G., and S. E. Miller. 1995. How many species are there in Hawai'i? Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 41:3-18.
33. _. 1998. Numbers of Hawaiian species: Supplement 3, with notes on fossil species. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 55:3-15.
34. Elliot, M. B., J. R. Flenley, and D. G. Sutton. 1998. A late Holocene pollen record of deforestation and environmental change from the Lake Tauanui catchment, Northland, New Zealand. Journal of Paleolimnology 19:23-32.
35. Elton, C. S. 1958. The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. Methuen, London.
36. Flenley, J. R., A. S. M. King, J. Jackson, and C. Chew. 1991. The Late Quaternary vegetational and climatic history of Easter Island. Journal of Quaternary Science 6:85-115.
37. Florence, J., S. Waldren, and A. J. Chepstow-Lusty. 1995. The flora of the Pitcairn Islands: A review. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 56:79-119.
38. Freeman, A. N. D. 1994. Landbirds recorded at the Chatham Islands, 1940 to December 1993. Notornis 41:127-141.
39. Fritts, T. H., and G. H. Rodda. 1998. The role of introduced species in the degradation of island ecosystems: A case history of Guam. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29:113-140.
40. Fullagar, P. J., J. L. McKean, and G. F. Van Tets. 1974. Pages 55-72 in H. F. Recher and S. S. Clark, eds. Environmental Survey of Lord Howe Island: A Report to the Lord Howe Island Board. Government Printer, Sydney.
41. Gargominy, O., P. Bouchet, M. Pascal, T. Jaffré, and J. Tourneur. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Revue d'Ecologie la Terre et la Vie 51:375-402.
42. Green, P. S. 1994. Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island. Flora of Australia 49:1-25.
43. Groombridge, B., ed. 1992. Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth's Living Resources. Chapman & Hall, London.
44. Groves, E. W. 1981. Vascular plant collections from the Tristan da Cunha group of islands. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Botany Series 8:333-420.
45. Harris, M. P. 1973. The Galápagos avifauna. Condor 75:265-278.
46. Harrison, S. 1993. Species diversity, spatial scale, and global change. Pages 388-401 in P. M. Kareiva, J. G. Kingsolver, and R. B. Huey, eds. Biotic Interactions and Global Change. Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass.
47. Hector, A., B. Schmid, C. Beierkuhnlein, M. C. Caldeira, M. Diemer, P. G. Dimitrakopoulos, J. A. Finn, et al. 1999. Plant diversity and productivity experiments in European grasslands. Science (Washington, D.C.) 286:1123-1127.
48. Hickman, J. C., ed. 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley.
49. Hiroa, T. R. 1945. An introduction to Polynesian anthropology. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 187:1-133.
50. Holyoak, D. T., and J.-C. Thibault. 1984. Contribution à l'étude des oiseaux de Polynesie orientale. Memoires du Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle 127:1-209.
51. Hutton, I. 1990. Birds of Lord Howe Island: Past and Present. Lithocraft Graphics, Melbourne.
52. James, H. F. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions and ecological changes on oceanic islands. Pages 88-102 in P. M. Vitousek, L. L. Loope, and H. Adsersen, eds. Islands: Biological Diversity and Ecosystem Functioning. Springer, Heidelberg.
53. James, H. F., and S. L. Olson. 1991. Descriptions of thirty-two new species of birds from the Hawaiian Islands. II. Passeriformes. Ornithological Monographs 46:1-88.
54. Jenkins, J. M. 1983. The native forest birds of Guam. Ornithological Monographs 31:1-61.
55. Johnson, A. W., W. R. Millie, and G. Moffet. 1970. Notes on the birds of Easter Island. Ibis 112:532-538.
56. Jones, H. L. 1995. Bird observations on Wake Atoll. Western Birds 26:65-75.
57. Kirch, P. V., D. W. Steadman, V. L. Butler, J. Hather, and M. I. Weisler. 1995. Prehistory and human ecology in eastern Polynesia: Excavations at Tangatatau Rockshelter, Mangaia, Cook Islands. Archaeology in Oceania 30:47-65.
58. Kramer, P. 1984. Man and other introduced organisms. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 21:253-258.
59. Lack, D. 1970. Island birds. Biotropica 2:29-31.
60. Lee, M. A. B. 1974. Distribution of native and invader plant species on the island of Guam. Biotropica 6:158-164.
61. Lever, C. 1987. Naturalized Birds of the World. Longman, Essex.
62. Levine, J. M. 2000. Species diversity and biological invasions: Relating local process to community pattern. Science (Washington, D.C.) 288:852-854.
63. Lonsdale, W. M. 1999. Global patterns of plant invasions and the concept of invasibility. Ecology 80:1522-1536.
64. MacArthur, R. H., and E. O. Wilson. 1967. The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
65. Mack, R. N. 1981. Invasion of Bromus tectorum into western North America: An ecological chronicle. Agro-Ecosystems 7:145-165.
66. MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Museum National D'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
67. Marticorena, C., and R. Rodriguez. 1995. Flora de Chile. Vol. 1. Pteridophyta-Gymnospermae. Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion.
68. Mathur, L. P. 1968. History of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 1756-1966. Sterling, Delhi.
69. McGrady-Steed, J., P. M. Harris, and P. J. Morin. 1997. Biodiversity regulates ecosystem predictability. Nature 390:162-165.
70. McKinney, M. L. 1998. On predicting biotic homogenization: Species-area patterns in marine biota. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 7:297-301.
71. Milberg, P., and T. Tyrberg. 1993. Naive birds and noble savages - A review of man-caused prehistoric extinctions of island birds. Ecography 16:229-250.
72. Millener, P. R. 1999. The history of the Chatham Islands' bird fauna of the last 7000 years - A chronicle of change and extinction. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 89:85-109.
73. Mooney, H. A., and E. E. Cleland. 2001. The evolutionary impact of invasive species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 98:5446-5451.
74. Mourer-Chauvire, C., R. Bour, S. Ribes, and F. Moutou. 1999. The avifauna of Reunion Island (Mascarene Islands) at the time of the arrival of the first Europeans. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 89:1-38.
75. Naeem, S., L. J. Thompson, S. P. Lawler, J. H. Lawton, and R. M. Woodfin. 1994. Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of ecosystems. Nature 368: 734-737.
76. Naeem, S., K. Håkansson, J. H. Lawton, M. J. Crawley, and L. J. Thompson. 1996. Biodiversity and plant productivity in a model assemblage of plant species. Oikos 76:259-264.
77. Newmark, W. D. 1995. Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Conservation Biology 9:512-526.
78. Newnham, R. M., P. J. de Lange, and D. J. Lowe. 1995. Holocene vegetation, climate and history of a raised bog complex, northern New Zealand based on palynology, plant macrofossils and tephrochronology. Holocene 5:267-282.
79. Ogden, J., R. M. Newnham, J.G. Palmer, R. G. Serra, and N. D. Mitchell. 1993. Climatic implications of macro-and microfossil assemblages from late Pleistocene deposits in northern New Zealand. Quaternary Research 39:107-119.
80. Oldfield, S., and C. Sheppard. 1997. Conservation of biodiversity and research needs in the UK Dependent Territories. Journal of Applied Ecology 34:1111-1121.
81. Olson, S. L. 1975. Paleornithology of St. Helena Island, South Atlantic Ocean. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 23:1-49.
82. Olson, S. L., and H. F. James. 1991. Descriptions of thirty-two new species of birds from the Hawaiian Islands. I. Non-passeriformes. Ornithological Monographs 45:1-88.
83. Petchey, O. L. 2000. Species diversity, species extinction, and ecosystem function. American Naturalist 155:696-702.
84. Pimm, S. L., M. E. Moulton, and L. J. Justice. 1994. Bird extinctions in the central Pacific. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences 344:27-33.
85. Pratt, H. D., J. Engbring, P. L. Bruner, and D. G. Berrett. 1980. Notes on the taxonomy, natural history, and status of the resident birds of Palau. Condor 82:117-131.
86. Pratt, H. D., P. L. Bruner, and D. G. Berrett. 1987. The Birds of Hawaii and the Tropical Pacific. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
87. Pyle, R. L. 1997. Checklist of the birds of Hawaii - 1997. Elepaio 57:129-138.
88. Resh, V. H., and F. A. De Szalay. 1995. Streams and rivers of Oceania. Pages 717-736 in C. E. Cushing, K. W. Cummins, and G. W. Minshall, eds. River and Stream Ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
89. Richardson, D. M., P. Pyšek, M. Rejmánek, M. G. Barbour, F. D. Panetta, and C. J. West. 2000a. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: Concepts and definitions. Diversity and Distributions 6:93-107.
90. Richardson, D. M., N. Allsopp, C. M. D'Antonio, S. J. Milton, and M. Rejmánek. 2000b. Plant invasions - The role of mutualisms. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 75:65-93.
91. Richardson, M. E. 1984. Aspects of the ornithology of the Tristan Da Cunha group. Cormorant 12:123-201.
92. Ripley, S. D., and B. M. Beehler. 1989. Ornithogeographic affinities of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Journal of Biogeography 16:323-332.
93. Ritchie, N. 1989. Archaeology and history of Norfolk Island. Archaeology in New Zealand 32:118-134.
94. Robertson, H. A., and B. D. Heather. 1999. The Hand Guide to the Birds of New Zealand. Penguin, Auckland.
95. Rogers, R. W., and D. Morrison. 1994. Floristic change on Heron Island, a Coral Cay in the Capricorn-Bunker Group, Great Barrier Reef. Australian Journal of Botany 42:297-305.
96. Rosenzweig, M. L. 2001. The four questions: What does the introduction of exotic species do to diversity? Evolutionary Ecology Research 3:361-367.
97. Rowland, M. J. 1995. Indigenous water-craft use in Australia: The "big picture" and small experiments on the Queensland coast. Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 19:5-18.
98. _. 1996. Prehistoric archaeology of the Great Barrier Reef province - Retrospect and prospect. Pages 191-212 in P. Veth and P. Hiscock, eds. Archaeology of Northern Australia. University of Queensland Anthropology Museum, St. Lucia.
99. Sax, D. F. 1999. Native and Exotic Species Distributions: Implications for General Models of Diversity, from Community to Biogeographic Scales. Ph.D. diss. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
100. _. 2001. Latitudinal gradients and geographic ranges of exotic species: Implications for biogeography. Journal of Biogeography 28:139-150.
101. _. 2002a. Equal diversity in disparate species assemblages: A comparison of native and exotic woodlands in California. Global Ecology & Biogeography 11:49-58.
102. _. 2002b. Native and naturalized plant diversity are positively correlated in scrub communities of California and Chile. Diversity and Distributions 8:193-210.
103. Sax, D. F., and J. H. Brown. 2000. The paradox of invasion. Global Ecology & Biogeography 9:363-372.
104. Schiffman, P. M. 1997. Animal-mediated dispersal and disturbance: Driving forces behind alien plant naturalization. Pages 87-94 in J. O. Luken and J. W. Thieret, eds. Management of Plant Invasions. Springer, New York.
105. Schodde, R., P. Fullagar, and N. Hermes. 1983. A review of Norfolk Island birds: Past and present. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra.
106. Selling, O. H. 1946. Studies in Hawaiian pollen statistics. I. The spores of Hawaiian pteridophytes. Special Publication of the Bishop Museum 37:1-87.
107. _. 1947. Studies in Hawaiian pollen statistics. II. The pollens of the Hawaiian phanerogams. Special Publication of the Bishop Museum 38:1-430.
108. _.1948. Studies in Hawaiian pollen statistics. III. On the late Quaternary history of the Hawaiian vegetation. Special Publication of the Bishop Museum 39:1-154.
109. Simberloff, D. 1981. Community effects of introduced species. Page 53-81 in M. H. Nitecki, ed. Biotic Crises in Ecological and Evolutionary Time. Academic Press, New York.
110. Simberloff, D., and P. Stiling. 1996. Risks of species introduced for biological control. Biological Conservation 78:185-192.
111. Skinner, M. W., and B. M. Pavlik, eds. 1994. California native plant society's inventory of rare and endangered vascular plants of California. 5th Ed. California Native Plant Society, Sacramento.
112. Stadler, J., A. Trefflich, S. Klotz, and R. Brandl. 2000. Exotic plant species invade diversity hot spots, the naturalized flora of northwestern Kenya. Ecography 23:169-176.
113. Steadman, D. W. 1989. Extinction of birds in eastern Polynesia: A review of the record, and comparisons with other Pacific Island groups. Journal of Archaeological Science 16:177-205.
114. _. 1991. Extinct and extirpated birds from Aitutaki and Atiu, southern Cook Islands. Pacific Science 45:325-347.
115. _. 1993a. Biogeography of Tongan birds before and after human impact. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 90:818-822.
116. _. 1993b. Bird bones from the To'aga site: Prehistoric loss of seabirds and megapodes. Pages 217-228 in P. V. Kirch and T. L. Hunt, eds. The To'aga site: Three millennia of Polynesian occupation in the Manu'a Islands, American Samoa. University of California Archaeological Research Facility, Berkeley.
117. _. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific Island birds: Biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science (Washington, D.C.) 267:1123-1130.
118. _. 1997. The historic biogeography and community ecology of Polynesian pigeons and doves. Journal of Biogeography 24:737-753.
119. Steadman, D. W., and H. B. Freifeld. 1998. Distribution, relative abundance, and habitat relationships of land-birds in the Vava'u Group, kingdom of Tonga. Condor 100:609-628.
120. Steadman, D. W., and B. Rolett. 1996. A chronostratigraphic analysis of landbird extinction on Tahuata, Marquesas Islands. Journal of Archaeological Science 23:81-94.
121. Steadman, D. W., T. W. Stafford, Jr., D. J. Donahue, and A. J. T. Jull. 1991. Chronology of Holocene vertebrate extinction in the Galápagos Islands. Quaternary Research 36:126-133.
122. Steadman, D. W., P. V. Casanova, and C. C. Ferrando. 1994. Stratigraphy, chronology, and cultural context of an early faunal assemblage from Easter Island. Asian Perspectives 33:79-96.
123. St. John, H. 1988. Census of the Flora of the Gambler Islands, Polynesia. Privately published, Honolulu.
124. Stohlgren, T. J., D. Binkley, G. W. Chong, M. A. Kalkhan, L. D. Schell, K. A. Bull, Y. Otsuki, G. Newman, M. Bashkin, and Y. Son. 1999. Exotic plant species invade hot spots of native plant diversity. Ecological Monographs 69:25-46.
125. Telford, I. R. H. 1993. Cocos (Keeling) Islands. Flora of Australia 50:30-42.
126. Thaman, R. R., F. R. Fosberg, H. L. Manner, and D. C. Hassall. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.
127. Tilman, D. 1999. Diversity and production in European grasslands. Science (Washington, D.C.) 286:1099-1100.
128. Trewick, S. A. 2000. Molecular evidence for dispersal rather than vicariance as the origin of flightless insect species on the Chatham Islands, New Zealand. Journal of Biogeography 27:1189-1200.
129. Turbott, E. G. 1990. Checklist of the Birds of New Zealand. 3d Ed. Ornithological Society of New Zealand, Auckland.
130. Valentine, J. W., and D. Jablonski. 1993. Fossil communities: Compositional variation at many time scales. Pages 341-349 in R. E. Ricklefs and D. Schluter, eds. Species Diversity in Ecological Communities. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
131. Vitousek, P. M., and L. R. Walker. 1989. Biological invasion by Myrica faya in Hawai'i: Plant demography, nitrogen fixation, ecosystem effects. Ecological Monographs 59:247-265.
132. Vitousek, P. M., C. M. D'Antonio, L. L. Loope, and R. Westbrooks. 1996. Biological invasions as global environmental change. American Scientist 84:468-478.
133. Walters, M. 1988. Probable validity of Rallus nigra Miller, an extinct species from Tahiti. Notornis 35:265-269.
134. Watkins, B. P., and W. Furness. 1986. Population status, breeding and conservation of the Gough Moorhen. Ostrich 57:32-36.
135. Watling, D. 1982. Birds of Fiji, Tonga and Samoa. Millwood, Wellington.
136. Webster, L. 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin 287:1-38.
137. Webster, L., J. O. Juvik, and P. Holthus. 1992. Vegetation history of Washington Island (Teraina), northern Line Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin 358:1-50.
138. Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A Summary Revision of the Flowering Plants of the Society Islands: Mehita, Tahiti, Moorea, Tetiaroa (iles du vent); Huahine, Raiatea, Tahaa, Bora Bora, Tupai, Maupiti, and Mopelia (iles sous le vent). Brigham Young University, Orem, Utah.
139. Whittaker, R. J., S. H. Jones, and T. Partomihardjo. 1997. The re-building of an isolated rain forest assemblage: How disharmonic is the flora of Krakatau? Biodiversity and Conservation 6:1671-1696.
140. Wilson, K. 1997. Extinct and introduced vertebrate species in New Zealand: A loss of biodistinctiveness and gain in biodiversity. Pacific Conservation Biology 3:301-305.
141. Zizka, G. 1991. Flowering Plants of Easter Island. Palmengarten, Frankfurt.