Management of cardiovascular complications in systemic lupus erythematosus

International Journal of Clinical Rheumatology

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 75-100

  Skamra, Carly ^a   Ramsey Goldman, Rosalind ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiac imaging; Cardiovascular disease; Cardiovascular risk factors; Subclinical atherosclerosis; Systemic lupus erythematosus

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; ATORVASTATIN; AUTOANTIBODY; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CAPTOPRIL; CLOPIDOGREL; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2 INHIBITOR; CYTOKINE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DISEASE MODIFYING ANTIRHEUMATIC DRUG; FLUINDOSTATIN; HOMOCYSTEINE; HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; LOSARTAN; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PLACEBO; PRAVASTATIN; PREDNISOLONE; PREDNISONE; ROSUVASTATIN; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR INHIBITOR; UNINDEXED DRUG;

AMINO ACID BLOOD LEVEL; AMINOTRANSFERASE BLOOD LEVEL; ANTIBODY PRODUCTION; ARTERIAL WALL THICKNESS; ARTERY CALCIFICATION; B SCAN; BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CAROTID ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CREATINE KINASE BLOOD LEVEL; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE ACTIVITY; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRUG DOSE TITRATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; DYSLIPOPROTEINEMIA; ELECTRON BEAM TOMOGRAPHY; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; ENDOTHELIAL STEM CELL; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; KIDNEY FAILURE; KINESIOTHERAPY; LENGTH OF STAY; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; LUPUS VULGARIS; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PSORIATIC ARTHRITIS; RAYNAUD PHENOMENON; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK REDUCTION; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; SMOKING CESSATION; STEM CELL; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; THROMBOSIS; TREATMENT DURATION; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

EID: 77950205354     PISSN: 17584272     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/ijr.09.73     Document Type: Review

References (193)

1. Nikpour M, Urowitz MB, Gladman DD: Premature atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. 31(2), 329-354, VII-VIII (2005).
2. Urowitz MB, Bookman AA, Koehler BE et al.: The bimodal mortality pattern of systemic lupus erythematosus. Am. J. Med. 60(2), 221-225 (1976).
3. Bernatsky S, Boivin JF, Joseph L et al.: Mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 54(8), 2550-2557 (2006).
4. Bjornadal L, Yin L, Granath F, Klareskog L, Ekbom A: Cardiovascular disease a hazard despite improved prognosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: results from a swedish population based study 1964-1995. J. Rheumatol. 31(4), 713-719 (2004).
5. Urowitz MB, Gladman D, Ibanez D et al.: Clinical manifestations and coronary artery disease risk factors at diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus: data from an international inception cohort. Lupus 16(9), 731-735 (2007).
6. Bruce IN, Urowitz MB, Gladman DD, Hallett DC: Natural history of hypercholesterolemia in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 26(10), 2137-2143 (1999).
7. Petri M, Spence D, Bone LR, Hochberg MC: Coronary artery disease risk factors in the Johns Hopkins lupus cohort: prevalence, recognition by patients, and preventive practices. Medicine (Baltimore) 71(5), 291-302 (1992).
8. Petri M, Perez-Gutthann S, Spence D, Hochberg MC: Risk factors for coronary artery disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Am. J. Med. 93(5), 513-519 (1992).
9. Manzi S, Meilahn EN, Rairie JE et al.: Age-specific incidence rates of myocardial infarction and angina in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: comparison with the framingham study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 145(5), 408-415 (1997).
10. Ward MM: Premature morbidity from cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 42(2), 338-346 (1999).
11. Gladman DD, Urowitz MB: Morbidity in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. Suppl. 14(Suppl. 13), 223-226 (1987).
12. Sultan H, Berson J, Mirotznik J, Ginzler E: Lack of evidence for corticosteroids as a risk factor for coronary artery disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Presented at: Northeast Region American College of Rheumatology Meeting, NY, USA, June 1994.
13. Friis-Moller N, Sabin CA, Weber R et al.: Combination antiretroviral therapy and the risk of myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 349(21), 1993-2003 (2003).
14. Friis-Moller N, Reiss P, Sabin CA et al.: Class of antiretroviral drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 356(17), 1723-1735 (2007).
15. Shah MA, Shah AM, Krishnan E: Poor outcomes after acute myocardial infarction in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 36(3), 570-575 (2009).
16. Bruce IN, Urowitz MB, Gladman DD, Ibanez D, Steiner G: Risk factors for coronary heart disease in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: the Toronto Risk Factor Study. Arthritis Rheum. 48(11), 3159-3167 (2003).
17. Esdaile JM, Abrahamowicz M, Grodzicky T et al.: Traditional Framingham risk factors fail to fully account for accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 44(10), 2331-2337 (2001).
18. Ford ES, Giles WH, Mokdad AH: The distribution of 10-year risk for coronary heart disease among us adults: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 43(10), 1791-1796 (2004).
19. Wilson PW, D'agostino RB, Levy D, Belanger AM, Silbershatz H, Kannel WB: Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation 97(18), 1837-1847 (1998).
20. Belcaro G, Nicolaides AN, Laurora G et al.: Ultrasound morphology classification of the arterial wall and cardiovascular events in a 6-year follow-up study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 16(7), 851-856 (1996).
21. Salonen JT, Salonen R: Ultrasound B-mode imaging in observational studies of atherosclerotic progression. Circulation 87(3 Suppl.), II56-II65 (1993).
22. Espeland MA, Craven TE, Riley WA, Corson J, Romont A, Furberg CD: Reliability of longitudinal ultrasonographic measurements of carotid intimal-medial thicknesses. Asymptomatic carotid artery progression study research group. Stroke 27(3), 480-485 (1996).
23. Li R, Cai J, Tegeler C, Sorlie P, Metcalf PA, Heiss G: Reproducibility of extracranial carotid atherosclerotic lesions assessed by B-mode ultrasound: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 22(7), 791-799 (1996).
24. Tonstad S, Joakimsen O, Stensland-Bugge E et al.: Risk factors related to carotid intima-media thickness and plaque in children with familial hypercholesterolemia and control subjects. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 16(8), 984-991 (1996).
25. Yamasaki Y, Kawamori R, Matsushima H et al.: Atherosclerosis in carotid artery of young IDDM patients monitored by ultrasound high-resolution B-mode imaging. Diabetes 43(5), 634-639 (1994).
26. Roman MJ, Moeller E, Davis A et al.: Preclinical carotid atherosclerosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Intern. Med. 144(4), 249-256 (2006).
27. Tam LS, Shang Q, Li EK et al.: Subclinical carotid atherosclerosis in patients with psoriatic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 59(9), 1322-1331 (2008).
28. Taylor AJ, Kent SM, Flaherty PJ, Coyle LC, Markwood TT, Vernalis MN: Arbiter: arterial biology for the investigation of the treatment effects of reducing cholesterol: a randomized trial comparing the effects of atorvastatin and pravastatin on carotid intima medial thickness. Circulation 106(16), 2055-2060 (2002).
29. Crouse Jr 3rd, Raichlen JS, Riley WA et al.: Effect of rosuvastatin on progression of carotid intima-media thickness in low-risk individuals with subclinical atherosclerosis: the meteor trial. JAMA 297(12), 1344-1353 (2007).
30. Roman MJ, Shanker BA, Davis A et al.: Prevalence and correlates of accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 349(25), 2399-2406 (2003).
31. Manzi S, Selzer F, Sutton-Tyrrell K et al.: Prevalence and risk factors of carotid plaque in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 42(1), 51-60 (1999).
32. Petri M: Detection of coronary artery disease and the role of traditional risk factors in the Hopkins Lupus Cohort. Lupus 9(3), 170-175 (2000).
33. Thompson T, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Wildman RP et al.: Progression of carotid intima-media thickness and plaque in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 58(3), 835-842 (2008).
34. Lamonte MJ, Fitzgerald SJ, Church TS et al.: Coronary artery calcium score and coronary heart disease events in a large cohort of asymptomatic men and women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 162(5), 421-429 (2005).
35. Von Feldt JM, Eisner ER, Sawaires A: Coronary electron beam computed tomography in 13 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and two or more cardiovascular risk factors. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 8(6), 316-321 (2002).
36. Asanuma Y, Oeser A, Shintani AK et al.: Premature coronary-artery atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 349(25), 2407-2415 (2003).
37. Von Feldt JM, Scalzi LV, Cucchiara AJ et al.: Homocysteine levels and disease duration independently correlate with coronary artery calcification in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 54(7), 2220-2227 (2006).
38. Chung CP, Oeser A, Avalos I, Raggi P, Stein CM: Cardiovascular risk scores and the presence of subclinical coronary artery atherosclerosis in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 15(9), 562-569 (2006).
39. Raggi P: Detection and quantification of cardiovascular calcifications with electron beam tomography to estimate risk in hemodialysis patients. Clin. Nephrol. 54(4), 325-333 (2000).
40. Fujimoto N, Iseki K, Tokuyama K, Tamashiro M, Takishita S: Significance of coronary artery calcification score (CACS) for the detection of coronary artery disease (CAD) in chronic dialysis patients. Clin. Chim. Acta 367(1-2), 98-102 (2006).
41. Nikpour M, Gladman DD, Ibanez D, Bruce IN, Burns RJ, Urowitz MB: Myocardial perfusion imaging in assessing risk of coronary events in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 36(2), 288-294 (2009).
42. O'neill SG, Woldman S, Bailliard F et al.: Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 68(9), 1478-1481 (2008).
43. Ross R: Atherosclerosis - an inflammatory disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 340(2), 115-126 (1999).
44. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM et al.: Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 340(8828), 1111-1115 (1992).
45. Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM: Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation 101(16), 1899-1906 (2000).
46. Yeboah J, Folsom AR, Burke GL et al.: Predictive value of brachial flow-mediated dilation for incident cardiovascular events in a population-based study. The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Circulation 120(6), 502-509 (2009).
47. O'driscoll G, Green D, Taylor RR: Simvastatin, an Hmg-coenzyme a reductase inhibitor, improves endothelial function within 1 month. Circulation 95(5), 1126-1131 (1997).
48. Anderson TJ, Elstein E, Haber H, Charbonneau F: Comparative study of ACE-inhibition, angiotensin II antagonism, and calcium channel Blockade on Flow-Mediated Vasodilation in Patients with Coronary Disease (BANFF study). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 35(1), 60-66 (2000).
49. Faulx MD, Wright AT, Hoit BD: Detection of endothelial dysfunction with brachial artery ultrasound scanning. Am. Heart J. 145(6), 943-951 (2003).
50. Kiss E, Soltesz P, Der H et al.: Reduced flow-mediated vasodilation as a marker for cardiovascular complications in lupus patients. J. Autoimmun. 27(4), 211-217 (2006).
51. El-Magadmi M, Bodill H, Ahmad Y et al.: Systemic lupus erythematosus: an independent risk factor for endothelial dysfunction in women. Circulation 110(4), 399-404 (2004).
52. Ferreira GA, Navarro TP, Telles RW, Andrade LE, Sato EI: Atorvastatin therapy improves endothelial-dependent vasodilation in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: an 8 weeks controlled trial. Rheumatology (Oxford) 46(10), 1560-1565 (2007).
53. Brodszki J, Bengtsson C, Lanne T, Nived O, Sturfelt G, Marsal K: Abnormal mechanical properties of larger arteries in postmenopausal women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 13(12), 917-923 (2004).
54. Selzer F, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Fitzgerald SG et al.: Comparison of risk factors for vascular disease in the carotid artery and aorta in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 50(1), 151-159 (2004).
55. De Leeuw K, Blaauw J, Smit A, Kallenberg C, Bijl M: Vascular responsiveness in the microcirculation of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus is not impaired. Lupus 17(11), 1010-1017 (2008).
56. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults: Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 285(19), 2486-2497 (2001).
57. Urowitz MB, Gladman D, Ibanez D et al.: Accumulation of coronary artery disease risk factors over three years: data from an international inception cohort. Arthritis Rheum. 59(2), 176-180 (2008).
58. Bessant R, Hingorani A, Patel L, Macgregor A, Isenberg DA, Rahman A: Risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in a large british cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford) 43(7), 924-929 (2004).
59. Fischer LM, Schlienger RG, Matter C, Jick H, Meier CR: Effect of rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus on the risk of first-time acute myocardial infarction. Am. J. Cardiol. 93(2), 198-200 (2004).
60. Bulkley BH, Roberts WC: The heart in systemic lupus erythematosus and the changes induced in it by corticosteroid therapy. A study of 36 necropsy patients. Am. J. Med. 58(2), 243-264 (1975).
61. Macgregor AJ, Dhillon VB, Binder A et al.: Fasting lipids and anticardiolipin antibodies as risk factors for vascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 51(2), 152-155 (1992).
62. Bessant R, Duncan R, Ambler G et al.: Prevalence of conventional and lupus-specific risk factors for cardiovascular disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control study. Arthritis Rheum. 55(6), 892-899 (2006).
63. John H, Kitas G, Toms T, Goodson N: Cardiovascular co-morbidity in early rheumatoid arthritis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol. 23(1), 71-82 (2009).
64. Wallberg-Jonsson S, Johansson H, Ohman Ml, Rantapaa-Dahlqvist S: Extent of inflammation predicts cardiovascular disease and overall mortality in seropositive rheumatoid arthritis. A retrospective cohort study from disease onset. J. Rheumatol. 26(12), 2562-2571 (1999).
65. Gladman DD, Ang M, Su L, Tom BD, Schentag CT, Farewell VT: Cardiovascular morbidity in psoriatic arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 68(7), 1131-1135 (2009).
66. Ibanez D, Gladman DD, Urowitz MB: Adjusted mean Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index-2k is a predictor of outcome in SLE. J. Rheumatol. 32(5), 824-827 (2005).
67. Erkkila AT, Narvanen O, Lehto S, Uusitupa MI, Yla-Herttuala S: Antibodies against oxidized LDL and cardiolipin and mortality in patients with coronary heart disease. Atherosclerosis 183(1), 157-162 (2005).
68. Jimenez S, Garcia-Criado MA, Tassies D et al.: Preclinical vascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus and primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxford) 44(6), 756-761 (2005).
69. Giles I, Rahman A: How to manage patients with systemic lupus erythematosus who are also antiphospholipid antibody positive. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol. 23(4), 525-537 (2009).
70. Hua X, Su J, Svenungsson E et al.: Dyslipidaemia and lipoprotein pattern in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and SLE-related cardiovascular disease. Scand. J. Rheumatol. 38(3), 184-189 (2009).
71. Vadacca M, Margiotta D, Rigon A et al.: Adipokines and systemic lupus erythematosus: relationship with metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease risk factors. J. Rheumatol. 36(2), 295-297 (2009).
72. Veres K, Lakos G, Kerenyi A et al.: Antiphospholipid antibodies in acute coronary syndrome. Lupus 13(6), 423-427 (2004).
73. Cederholm A, Svenungsson E, Jensen-Urstad K et al.: Decreased binding of annexin v to endothelial cells: a potential mechanism in atherothrombosis of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25(1), 198-203 (2005).
74. Cederholm A, Frostegard J: Annexin A5 as a novel player in prevention of atherothrombosis in SLE and in the general population. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1108, 96-103 (2007).
75. Suresh S, Demirci FY, Jacobs E et al.: Apolipoprotein H promoter polymorphisms in relation to lupus and lupus-related phenotypes. J. Rheumatol. 36(2), 315-322 (2009).
76. Inoue T, Uchida T, Kamishirado H, Takayanagi K, Hayashi T, Morooka S: Clinical significance of antibody against oxidized low density lipoprotein in patients with atherosclerotic coronary artery disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 37(3), 775-779 (2001).
77. Frostegard J, Svenungsson E, Wu R et al.: Lipid peroxidation is enhanced in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and is associated with arterial and renal disease manifestations. Arthritis Rheum. 52(1), 192-200 (2005).
78. Kobayashi K, Matsuura E, Liu Q et al.: A specific ligand for b(2)-glycoprotein I mediates autoantibody-dependent uptake of oxidized low density lipoprotein by macrophages. J. Lipid Res. 42(5), 697-709 (2001).
79. Matsuura E, Kobayashi K, Hurley BL, Lopez LR: Atherogenic oxidized low-density lipoprotein/b2-glycoprotein i (OXLDL/ b2GPI) complexes in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus 15(7), 478-483 (2006).
80. Su J, Georgiades A, Wu R, Thulin T, De Faire U, Frostegard J: Antibodies of IgM subclass to phosphorylcholine and oxidized LDL are protective factors for atherosclerosis in patients with hypertension. Atherosclerosis 188(1), 160-166 (2006).
81. Su J, Hua X, Concha H, Svenungsson E, Cederholm A, Frostegard J: Natural antibodies against phosphorylcholine as potential protective factors in SLE. Rheumatology (Oxford) 47(8), 1144-1150 (2008).
82. Borba EF, Bonfa E: Dyslipoproteinemias in systemic lupus erythematosus: influence of disease, activity, and anticardiolipin antibodies. Lupus 6(6), 533-539 (1997).
83. Svenungsson E, Fei Gz, Jensen-Urstad K, De Faire U, Hamsten A, Frostegard J: TNF-a: a link between hypertriglyceridaemia and inflammation in SLE patients with cardiovascular disease. Lupus 12(6), 454-461 (2003).
84. Urquizu-Padilla M, Balada E, Chacon P, Perez EH, Vilardell-Tarres M, Ordi-Ros J: Changes in lipid profile between flare and remission of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective study. J. Rheumatol. 36(8), 1639-1645 (2009).
85. Borba EF, Santos RD, Bonfa E et al.: Lipoprotein(a) levels in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 21(2), 220-223 (1994).
86. Sari RA, Polat MF, Taysi S, Bakan E, Capoglu I: Serum lipoprotein(a) level and its clinical significance in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin. Rheumatol. 21(6), 520-524 (2002).
87. Borba EF, Bonfa E, Vinagre CG, Ramires JA, Maranhao RC: Chylomicron metabolism is markedly altered in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 43(5), 1033-1040 (2000).
88. Reichlin M, Fesmire J, Quintero-Del-Rio AI, Wolfson-Reichlin M: Autoantibodies to lipoprotein lipase and dyslipidemia in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 46(11), 2957-2963 (2002).
89. Mcmahon M, Grossman J, Fitzgerald J et al.: Proinflammatory high-density lipoprotein as a biomarker for atherosclerosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 54(8), 2541-2549 (2006).
90. Mcmahon M, Grossman J, Skaggs B et al.: Dysfunctional proinflammatory high-density lipoproteins confer increased risk of atherosclerosis in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 60(8), 2428-2437 (2009).
91. Wali RK, Henrich WL: Chronic kidney disease: a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Cardiol. Clin. 23(3), 343-362 (2005).
92. Levey AS, Beto JA, Coronado BE et al.: Controlling the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease: what do we know? What do we need to learn? Where do we go from here? National Kidney Foundation task force on cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 32(5), 853-906 (1998).
93. Ordonez JD, Hiatt RA, Killebrew EJ, Fireman BH: The increased risk of coronary heart disease associated with nephrotic syndrome. Kidney Int. 44(3), 638-642 (1993).
94. Font J, Ramos-Casals M, Cervera R et al.: Cardiovascular risk factors and the long-term outcome of lupus nephritis. QJM 94(1), 19-26 (2001).
95. Toloza SM, Uribe AG, Mcgwin G Jr et al.: Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic us cohort (LUMINA). XXIII. Baseline predictors of vascular events. Arthritis Rheum. 50(12), 3947-3957 (2004).
96. Manger K, Kusus M, Forster C et al.: Factors associated with coronary artery calcification in young female patients with SLE. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 62(9), 846-850 (2003).
97. Falaschi F, Ravelli A, Martignoni A et al.: Nephrotic-range proteinuria, the major risk factor for early atherosclerosis in juvenile-onset systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 43(6), 1405-1409 (2000).
98. Chambers SA, Allen E, Rahman A, Isenberg D: Damage and mortality in a group of british patients with systemic lupus erythematosus followed up for over 10 years. Rheumatology (Oxford) 48(6), 673-675 (2009).
99. Danila MI, Pons-Estel GJ, Zhang J, V ila LM, Reveille JD, Alarcon GS: Renal damage is the most important predictor of mortality within the damage index: data from LUMINA LXIV, a multiethnic us cohort. Rheumatology (Oxford) 48(5), 542-545 (2009).
100. Ward MM: Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular morbidity and mortality among women with end-stage renal disease attributable to lupus nephritis. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 36(3), 516-525 (2000).
101. Jarvisalo MJ, Juonala M, Raitakari OT: Assessment of inflammatory markers and endothelial function. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 9(5), 547-552 (2006).
102. Constans J, Dupuy R, Blann AD et al.: Anti-endothelial cell autoantibodies and soluble markers of endothelial cell dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 30(9), 1963-1966 (2003).
103. Somers EC, Marder W, Kaplan MJ, Brook RD, Mccune WJ: Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 is associated with impaired endothelial function in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1051, 271-280 (2005).
104. Svenungsson E, Cederholm A, Jensen-Urstad K, Fei GZ, De Faire U, Frostegard J: Endothelial function and markers of endothelial activation in relation to cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand. J. Rheumatol. 37(5), 352-359 (2008).
105. Colombo BM, Cacciapaglia F, Puntoni M et al.: Traditional and non traditional risk factors in accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: Role of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGATS study). Autoimmun. Rev. 8(4), 309-315 (2009).
106. Fiedler U, Augustin HG: Angiopoietins: a link between angiogenesis and inflammation. Trends Immunol. 27(12), 552-558 (2006).
107. David S, Kumpers P, Lukasz A, Kielstein JT, Haller H, Fliser D: Circulating angiopoietin-2 in essential hypertension: relation to atherosclerosis, vascular inflammation, and treatment with olmesartan/ pravastatin. J. Hypertens. 27(8), 1641-1647 (2009).
108. Kumpers P, Hellpap J, David S et al.: Circulating angiopoietin-2 is a marker and potential mediator of endothelial cell detachment in ANCA-associated vasculitis with renal involvement. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 24(6), 1845-1850 (2009).
109. Kumpers P, David S, Haubitz M et al.: The Tie2 receptor antagonist angiopoietin 2 facilitates vascular inflammation in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 68(10), 1638-1643 (2009).
110. Werner N, Kosiol S, Schiegl T et al.: Circulating endothelial progenitor cells and cardiovascular outcomes. N. Engl. J. Med. 353(10), 999-1007 (2005).
111. Hill JM, Zalos G, Halcox JP et al.: Circulating endothelial progenitor cells, vascular function, and cardiovascular risk. N. Engl. J. Med. 348(7), 593-600 (2003).
112. Denny MF, Thacker S, Mehta H et al.: Interferon-a promotes abnormal vasculogenesis in lupus: a potential pathway for premature atherosclerosis. Blood 110(8), 2907-2915 (2007).
113. Xie G, Myint PK, Zhao L et al.: Relationship between -592A/C polymorphism of interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene and risk of early carotid atherosclerosis. Int. J. Cardiol. (2008) (Epub ahead of print).
114. Fei GZ, Svenungsson E, Frostegard J, Padyukov L: The A-1087IL-10 allele is associated with cardiovascular disease in SLE. Atherosclerosis 177(2), 409-414 (2004).
115. Chiappelli M, Tampieri C, Tumini E et al.: Interleukin-6 gene polymorphism is an age-dependent risk factor for myocardial infarction in men. Int. J. Immunogenet. 32(6), 349-353 (2005).
116. Roman MJ, Devereux RB, Schwartz JE et al.: Arterial stiffness in chronic inflammatory diseases. Hypertension 46(1), 194-199 (2005).
117. Lloyd-Jones DM, Liu K, Tian L, Greenland P: Narrative review: Assessment of C-reactive protein in risk prediction for cardiovascular disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 145(1), 35-42 (2006).
118. Szalai AJ, Alarcon GS, Calvo-Alen J et al.: Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic us cohort (LUMINA). XXX: Association between C-reactive protein (CRP) gene polymorphisms and vascular events. Rheumatology (Oxford) 44(7), 864-868 (2005).
119. Bertoli AM, Vila LM, Reveille JD, Alarcon GS: Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic us cohort (LUMINA): LXI. Value of C-reactive protein as a marker of disease activity and damage. J. Rheumatol. 35(12), 2355-2358 (2008).
120. Pons-Estel GJ, Gonzalez LA, Zhang J et al.: Predictors of cardiovascular damage in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA (LXVIII), a multiethnic US cohort. Rheumatology (Oxford) 48(7), 817-822 (2009).
121. Kao AH, Wasko MC, Krishnaswami S et al.: C-reactive protein and coronary artery calcium in asymptomatic women with systemic lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis. Am. J. Cardiol. 102(6), 755-760 (2008).
122. Doshi SN, Goodfellow J, Lewis MJ, Mcdowell IF: Homocysteine and endothelial function. Cardiovasc. Res. 42(3), 578-582 (1999).
123. Svenungsson E, Jensen-Urstad K, Heimburger M et al.: Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Circulation 104(16), 1887-1893 (2001).
124. Roman MJ, Crow MK, Lockshin MD et al.: Rate and determinants of progression of atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 56(10), 3412-3419 (2007).
125. Von Feldt JM: Premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and systemic lupus erythematosus from bedside to bench. Bull. NYU Hosp. Jt Dis. 66(3), 184-187 (2008).
126. Kaul S, Zadeh AA, Shah PK: Homocysteine hypothesis for atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease: not validated. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 48(5), 914-923 (2006).
127. Potter K, Hankey GJ, Green DJ, Eikelboom JW, Arnolda LF: Homocysteine or renal impairment: which is the real cardiovascular risk factor? Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 28(6), 1158-1164 (2008).
128. Smith SC Jr: Multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Med. 120(3 Suppl. 1), S3-S11 (2007).
129. El Magadmi M, Ahmad Y, Turkie W et al.: Hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and circulating oxidized low density lipoprotein in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 33(1), 50-56 (2006).
130. Chung CP, Avalos I, Oeser A et al.: High prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: association with disease characteristics and cardiovascular risk factors. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 66(2), 208-214 (2007).
131. Sabio JM, Zamora-Pasadas M, Jimenez-Jaimez J et al.: Metabolic syndrome in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus from southern spain. Lupus 17(9), 849-859 (2008).
132. Tso TK, Huang WN: Elevation of fasting insulin and its association with cardiovascular disease risk in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol. Int. 29(7), 735-742 (2009).
133. Tilg H, Moschen AR: Adipocytokines: Mediators linking adipose tissue, inflammation and immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 6(10), 772-783 (2006).
134. Costenbader KH, Karlson EW, Gall V et al.: Barriers to a trial of atherosclerosis prevention in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 53(5), 718-723 (2005).
135. Costenbader KH, Wright E, Liang MH, Karlson EW: Cardiac risk factor awareness and management in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 51(6), 983-988 (2004).
136. Scalzi LV, Ballou SP, Park JY, Redline S, Kirchner HL: Cardiovascular disease risk awareness in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Arthritis Rheum. 58(5), 1458-1464 (2008).
137. Costenbader KH, Brome D, Blanch D, Gall V, Karlson E, Liang MH: Factors determining participation in prevention trials among systemic lupus erythematosus patients: a qualitative study. Arthritis Rheum. 57(1), 49-55 (2007).
138. Graham I, Atar D, Borch-Johnsen K et al.: European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: executive summary. Atherosclerosis 194(1), 1-45 (2007).
139. Urowitz MB, Gladman DD, Ibanez D, Berliner Y: Modification of hypertension and hypercholesterolaemia in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a quality improvement study. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 65(1), 115-117 (2006).
140. Costenbader KH, Liang MH, Chibnik LB et al.: A pravastatin dose-escalation study in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol. Int. 27(11), 1071-1077 (2007).
141. Norby GE, Holme I, Fellstrom B et al.: Effect of fluvastatin on cardiac outcomes in kidney transplant patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Arthritis Rheum. 60(4), 1060-1064 (2009).
142. Petri M, Kiani AN, Post W, Magder L: Lupus Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (LAPS): a randomized double blind placebo controlled trial of atorvastatin versus placebo. Arthritis Rheum. Suppl. 54, S520 (2006).
143. Jury EC, Ehrenstein MR: Statins: immunomodulators for autoimmune rheumatic disease? Lupus 14(3), 192-196 (2005).
144. Graham KL, Lee LY, Higgins JP, Steinman L, Utz PJ, Ho PP: Failure of oral atorvastatin to modulate a murine model of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 58(7), 2098-2104 (2008).
145. De Kruif M, Limper M, Hanse H et al.: Effects of a 3 month course of rosuvastatin in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 68, 1654 (2009).
146. Neal B, Macmahon S, Chapman N: Effects of ace inhibitors, calcium antagonists, and other blood-pressure-lowering drugs: results of prospectively designed overviews of randomised trials. Blood pressure lowering treatment trialists' collaboration. Lancet 356(9246), 1955-1964 (2000).
147. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R: Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 360(9349), 1903-1913 (2002).
148. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR et al.: The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 289(19), 2560-2572 (2003).
149. Coffman JD: Raynaud's phenomenon. An update. Hypertension 17(5), 593-602 (1991).
150. Torpet LA, Kragelund C, Reibel J, Nauntofte B: Oral adverse drug reactions to cardiovascular drugs. Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 15(1), 28-46 (2004).
151. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davies R, Dagenais G: Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation study investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 342(3), 145-153 (2000).
152. Herlitz H, Edeno C, Mulec H, Westberg G, Aurell M: Captopril treatment of hypertension and renal failure in systemic lupus erythematosus. Nephron 38(4), 253-256 (1984).
153. Duran-Barragan S, Mcgwin G Jr, Vila LM, Reveille JD, Alarcon GS: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors delay the occurrence of renal involvement and are associated with a decreased risk of disease activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus - results from LUMINA (LIX): a multiethnic US cohort. Rheumatology (Oxford) 47(7), 1093-1096 (2008).
154. Kitamura N, Matsukawa Y, Takei M, Sawada S: Antiproteinuric effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and an angiotensin II receptor blocker in patients with lupus nephritis. J. Int. Med. Res. 37(3), 892-898 (2009).
155. Brenner BM, Cooper ME, De Zeeuw D et al.: Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with Type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 345(12), 861-869 (2001).
156. Mancia G, Grassi G, Zanchetti A: New-onset diabetes and antihypertensive drugs. J. Hypertens. 24(1), 3-10 (2006).
157. Dahlof B, Sever PS, Poulter NR et al.: Prevention of cardiovascular events with an antihypertensive regimen of amlodipine adding perindopril as required versus atenolol adding bendroflumethiazide as required, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Blood Pressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT-BPLA): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 366(9489), 895-906 (2005).
158. Sanmuganathan PS, Ghahramani P, Jackson PR, Wallis EJ, Ramsay LE: Aspirin for primary prevention of coronary heart disease: safety and absolute benefit related to coronary risk derived from meta-analysis of randomised trials. Heart 85(3), 265-271 (2001).
159. Lauer MS: Clinical practice. Aspirin for primary prevention of coronary events. N. Engl. J. Med. 346(19), 1468-1474 (2002).
160. Patel A, Joshi R, De Galan B: Trials of cardiovascular risk factor management in Type 2 diabetes. Curr. Opin. Cardiol. 24(4), 288-294 (2009).
161. Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG et al.: Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomised trial. HOT study group. Lancet 351(9118), 1755-1762 (1998).
162. Chan AT, Manson JE, Feskanich D, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Fuchs CS: Long-term aspirin use and mortality in women. Arch. Intern. Med. 167(6), 562-572 (2007).
163. Leung MH, Heaton S, Skan J, Al E: Mortality and malignancy in the multi-ethnic birmingham lupus cohort - aspirin use is beneficial and
164. Wahl DG, Bounameaux H, De Moerloose P, Sarasin FP: Prophylactic antithrombotic therapy for patients with systemic lupus erythematosus with or without antiphospholipid antibodies: do the benefits outweigh the risks? A decision analysis. Arch. Intern. Med. 160(13), 2042-2048 (2000).
165. Tektonidou MG, Laskari K, Panagiotakos DB, Moutsopoulos HM: Risk factors for thrombosis and primary thrombosis prevention in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus with or without antiphospholipid antibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 61(1), 29-36 (2009).
166. Wajed J, Ahmad Y, Durrington PN, Bruce IN: Prevention of cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus - proposed guidelines for risk factor management. Rheumatology (Oxford) 43(1), 7-12 (2004).
167. Becker RC, Meade TW, Berger PB et al.: The primary and secondary prevention of coronary artery disease: American college of chest physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 133(6 Suppl.), 776S-814S (2008).
168. Bhatt Dl, Fox Ka, Hacke W et al.: Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. N. Engl. J. Med. 354(16), 1706-1717 (2006).
169. Ostensen M, Villiger PM: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 10(3), 135-139 (2001).
170. Ter Borg EJ, De Jong PE, Meijer S, Kallenberg CG: Renal effects of indomethacin in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Nephron 53(3), 238-243 (1989).
171. Wang CR, Chuang CY, Chen CY: Drug allergy in chinese patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 20(2), 399-400 (1993).
172. Feldman M, Mcmahon AT: Do cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors provide benefits similar to those of traditional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, with less gastrointestinal toxicity? Ann. Intern. Med. 132(2), 134-143 (2000).
173. Kaiser R, Cleveland CM, Criswell LA: Risk and protective factors for thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: results from a large, multi-ethnic cohort. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 68(2), 238-241 (2009).
174. Ruiz-Irastorza G, Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zeron P, Khamashta MA: Clinical efficacy and side effects of antimalarials in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69(1), 20-28 (2010).
175. Wasko MC, Hubert HB, Lingala VB et al.: Hydroxychloroquine and risk of diabetes in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. JAMA 298(2), 187-193 (2007).
176. Rho YH, Oeser A, Chung CP, Milne GL, Stein CM: Drugs used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: relationship between current use and cardiovascular risk factors. Arch. Drug Inf. 2(2), 34-40 (2009).
177. Gibson WT, Hayden MR: Mycophenolate mofetil and atherosclerosis: results of animal and human studies. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1110, 209-221 (2007).
178. David KM, Morris JA, Steffen BJ, Chi-Burris KS, Gotz VP, Gordon RD: Mycophenolate mofetil vs. azathioprine is associated with decreased acute rejection, late acute rejection, and risk for cardiovascular death in renal transplant recipients with pre-transplant diabetes. Clin. Transplant. 19(2), 279-285 (2005).
179. Sammaritano LR: Therapy insight: guidelines for selection of contraception in women with rheumatic diseases. Nat. Clin. Pract. Rheumatol. 3(5), 273-281; quiz 305-1276 (2007).
180. Hochman J, Urowitz M, Ibanez D, Gladman D: Hormone replacement therapy in women with systemic lupus erythematouss and risk of cardiovascular disease. Lupus 18, 313-317 (2009).
181. Petri M, Kim MY, Kalunian KC et al.: Combined oral contraceptives in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 353(24), 2550-2558 (2005).
182. Fernandez M, Calvo-Alen J, Bertoli AM et al.: Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA L II): Relationship between vascular events and the use of hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 13(5), 261-265 (2007).
183. Ghaussy NO, Sibbitt W Jr, Bankhurst AD, Qualls CR: Cigarette smoking and disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 30(6), 1215-1221 (2003).
184. Gulati M, Pandey DK, Arnsdorf MF et al.: Exercise capacity and the risk of death in women: the St James Women Take Heart project. Circulation 108(13), 1554-1559 (2003).
185. Tench C, Bentley D, Vleck V, Mccurdie I, White P, D'cruz D: Aerobic fitness, fatigue, and physical disability in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 29(3), 474-481 (2002).
186. Carvalho MR, Sato EI, Tebexreni AS, Heidecher RT, Schenkman S, Neto TL: Effects of supervised cardiovascular training program on exercise tolerance, aerobic capacity, and quality of life in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 53(6), 838-844 (2005).
187. Ramsey-Goldman R, Schilling EM, Dunlop D et al.: A pilot study on the effects of exercise in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res. 13(5), 262-269 (2000).
188. Cannon CP: Cardiovascular disease and modifiable cardiometabolic risk factors. Clin. Cornerstone 8(3), 11-28 (2007).
189. Screening for Type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults: U.S. preventive services task force recommendation statement. Ann. Intern. Med. 148(11), 846-854 (2008).
190. Holick MF: Vitamin D deficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 357(3), 266-281 (2007).
191. Martins D, Wolf M, Pan D et al.: Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and the serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the United States: data from The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch. Intern. Med. 167(11), 1159-1165 (2007).
192. Kamen DL, Cooper GS, Bouali H, Shaftman SR, Hollis BW, Gilkeson GS: Vitamin D deficiency in systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmun. Rev. 5(2), 114-117 (2006).
193. Wu PW, Rhew EY, Dyer AR et al.: 25-hydroxyvitamin d and cardiovascular risk factors in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 61(10), 1387-1395 (2009).