Human toxocariasis: Diagnosis, worldwide seroprevalences and clinical expression of the systemic and ocular forms

Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology

Volumn 104, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 3-23

  Rubinsky Elefant, G ^a   Hirata, C E ^a   Yamamoto, J H ^a   Ferreira, M U ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALBENDAZOLE; ANTHELMINTIC AGENT; DIETHYLCARBAMAZINE; PREDNISONE; TIABENDAZOLE;

ASTHMA; BEHAVIOR CHANGE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; EPILEPSY; EYE INFECTION; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HUMAN; INFECTION RISK; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; NONHUMAN; OCULAR LARVA MIGRANS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEROPREVALENCE; SEX DIFFERENCE; TOXOCARIASIS; VISCERAL LARVA MIGRANS SYNDROME; WHEEZING;

ANIMALS; ANIMALS, DOMESTIC; ANTHELMINTICS; CAT DISEASES; CATS; DISEASE RESERVOIRS; DOG DISEASES; DOGS; EYE INFECTIONS, PARASITIC; FEMALE; HUMANS; LARVA MIGRANS; LARVA MIGRANS, VISCERAL; MALE; PREGNANCY; RISK FACTORS; RURAL HEALTH; SEROEPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES; SOIL; TOXOCARA; URBAN HEALTH; WORLD HEALTH;

CANIS FAMILIARIS; TOXOCARA CANIS;

EID: 77949467887     PISSN: 00034983     EISSN: 13648594     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1179/136485910X12607012373957     Document Type: Review

References (193)

1. Abdel-Hameed, A. A. (1984). Effect of thiabendazole on the migration of Toxocara canis larvae in the mouse. Journal of Parasitology, 70, 226-231.
2. Abo-Shehada, M. N., Sharif, L., El-Sukhon, S. N., Abuharfeil, N. & Atmeh, R. F. (1992). Seroprevalence of Toxocara canis antibodies in humans in northern Jordan. Journal of Helminthology, 66, 75-78.
3. Agudelo, C., Villareal, E., Cáceres, E., López, C., Eljach, J., Ramírez, N., Hernández, C. & Corredor, A. (1990). Human and dogs Toxocara canis infection in a poor neighborhood in Bogotá. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 85, 75-78.
4. Ajayi, O. O., Duhlinka, D. D., Agwale, S. M. & Njoku, M. (2000). Frequency of human toxocariasis in Jos, Plateau state, Nigeria. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 95, 147-149.
5. Akao, N. & Ohta, N. (2007). Toxocariasis in Japan. Parasitology International, 56, 87-93.
6. Akyol, A., Bicerol, B., Ertug, S., Ertabaklar, H. & Kiylioglu, N. (2007). Epilepsy and seropositivity rates of Toxocara canis and Toxoplasma gondii. Seizure, 16, 233-237.
7. Alcântara-Neves, N. M., dos Santos, A. B., Mendonça, L. R., Figueiredo, C. A. & Pontes-de-Carvalho, L. (2008). An improved method to obtain antigenexcreting Toxocara canis larvae. Experimental Parasitology, 119, 349-351.
8. Alderete, J. M. S., Jacob, C. M. A., Pastorino, A. C., Elefant, G. R., Castro, A. P. M., Fomin, A. B. F. & Chieffi, P. P. (2003). Prevalence of Toxocara infection in schoolchildren from the Butantã region, São Paulo, Brazil. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 98, 593-597.
9. Alonso, J. M., Bojanich, M. V., Chamorro, M. & Gorodner, J. O. (2000). Toxocara seroprevalence in children from a subtropical city in Argentina. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 42, 235-237.
10. Anaruma, F. F., Chieffi, P. P., Correa, C. R., Camargo, E. D., Silveira, E. P., Aranha, J. J. & Ribeiro, M. C. (2002). Human toxocariasis: a seroepidemiological survey in the municipality of Campinas (SP), Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 44, 303-307.
11. Araújo, P. (1972). Observações pertinentes ás primeiras ecdises de larvas de Ascaris lumbricoides, A. suum e Toxocara canis. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 14, 83-90.
12. Arpino, C., Gattinara, G. C., Piergili, D. & Curatolo, P. (1990). Toxocara infection and epilepsy in children: a case-control study. Epilepsia, 31, 33-36.
13. Ashton, N. (1960). Larval granulomatosis of the retina due to Toxocara. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 44, 129-148.
14. Avcioglu, H. & Burgu, A. (2008). Seasonal prevalence of Toxocara ova in soil samples from public parks in Ankara, Turkey. Vector-borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 8, 345-350.
15. Aydenizöz-Ö zkayhan, M., Yaǧci, B. B. & Erat, S. (2008). The investigation of Toxocara canis eggs in coats of different dog breeds as a potential transmission route in human toxocariasis. Veterinary Parasitology, 152, 94-100.
16. Baboolal, S. & Rawlins, S. C. (2002). Seroprevalence of toxocariasis in schoolchildren in Trinidad. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 96, 139-143.
17. Barisani-Asenbauer, T., Maca, S. M., Hauff, W., Kaminski, S. L., Domanovits. H., Theyer, I. & Auer, H. J. (2001). Treatment of ocular toxocariasis with albendazole. Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 17, 287-294.
18. Bass, J. L, Mehta, K. A., Glickman, L. T. & Eppes, B. M. (1983). Clinically inapparent Toxocara infection in children. New England Journal of Medicine, 308, 723-724.
19. Bass, J. L., Mehta, K. A., Glickman, L. T., Blocker, R. & Eppes, B. M. (1987). Asymptomatic toxocariasis in children. A prospective study and treatment trial. Clinical Pediatrics, 26, 441-446.
20. Beaver, P. C., Snyder, C. H. & Carrera, G. M. (1952). Chronic eosinophilia due to visceral larva migrans. Pediatrics, 9, 7-19.
21. Bede, O., Szénási, Z., Danka, J., Gyurkovits, K. & Nagy, D. (2008). Toxocariasis associated with chronic cough in childhood: a longitudinal study in Hungary. Journal of Helminthology, 82, 357-363.
22. Bird, A. C., Smith, J. L. & Curtin, V. T. (1970). Nematode optic neuritis. American Journal of Ophthalmology, 69, 72-77.
23. Brown, D. H. (1970). Ocular Toxocara canis. II. Clinical review. Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology, 7, 182-191.
24. Brunaská, M., Dubinský, P. & Reiterová, K. (1995). Toxocara canis: ultrastructural aspects of larval moulting in the maturing eggs. International Journal for Parasitology, 25, 683-690.
25. Buijs, J., Borsboom, G., van Gemund, J. J., Hazebroek, A., van Dongen, P. A., van Knapen, F. & Neijens, H. J. (1994). Toxocara seroprevalence in 5-year-old elementary schoolchildren: relation with allergic asthma. American Journal of Epidemiology, 140, 839-847.
26. Buijs, J., Borsboom, G., Renting, M., Hilgersom, W. J., van Wieringen, J. C., Jansen, G. & Neijens, J. (1997). Relationship between allergic manifestations and Toxocara seropositivity: a cross-sectional study among elementary school children. European Respiratory Journal, 10, 1467-1475.
27. Camargo, E. D., Nakamura, P. M., Vaz, A. J., Silva, M. V., Chieffi, P. P. & Mello, E. O. (1992). Standardization of DOT-ELISA for the serological diagnosis of toxocariasis and comparison of the assay with ELISA. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 34, 55-60.
28. Campos-Junior, D., Elefant, G. R., de Melo e Silva, E. O., Gandolfi, L., Jacob, C. M. A., Tofeti, A. & Pratesi, R. (2003). Frequency of seropositivity to Toxocara canis in children of different socioeconomic strata. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 36, 509-513.
29. Cancrini, G., Bartoloni, A., Zaffaroni, E., Guglielmetti, P., Gamboa, H., Nicoletti, A. & Genchi, C. (1998). Seroprevalence of Toxocara canis-IgG antibodies in two rural Bolivian communities. Parassitologia, 40, 473-475.
30. Chan, P. W. K., Anuar, A. K., Fong, M. Y., Debruyne, J. A. & Ibrahim, J. (2001). Toxocara seroprevalence and childhood asthma among Malaysian children. Pediatrics International, 43, 350-353.
31. Chieffi, P. P., Ueda, M., Camargo, E. D., de Souza, A. M., Guedes, M. L., Gerbi, L. J., Spir, M. & Moreira, A. S. (1990). Visceral larva migrans: a seroepidemiological survey in five municipalities of São Paulo state, Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 32, 204-210.
32. Chiodo, P., Basualdo, J., Ciarmela, L., Pezzani, B., Apezteguía, M. & Minvielle, M. (2006). Related factors to human toxocariasis in a rural community of Argentina. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 101, 397-400.
33. Chorazy, M. L. & Richardson, D. J. (2005). A survey of environmental contamination with ascarid ova, Wallingford, Connecticut. Vector-borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 5, 33-39.
34. Cilla, G., Pérez-Trallero, E., Gutiérrez, C., Part, C. & Gomáriz, M. (1996). Seroprevalence of Toxocara infection in middle-class and disadvantaged children in northern Spain (Gipuzkoa, Basque country). European Journal of Epidemiology, 12, 541-543.
35. Coelho, F. A. S., Araújo, A. J. U. S., Kanamura, H. Y., Rubinsky-Elefant, G. & Coêlho, M. D. G. (2006). Frequency of anti-Toxocara sp antibodies and socio-environmental characterization of a rural population in the city of Pindamonhangaba, SP, Brazil. Revista de Biociências (Taubaté), 12, 157-164.
36. Coelho, L. M., Silva, M. V., Dini, C. Y., Giacon Neto, A. A., Novo, N. F. & Silveira, E. P. (2004). Human seroepidemiological survey in toxocariasis: a schoolchildren of Sorocaba, Brazil. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 99, 553-557.
37. Coelho, R. A. L., Carvalho Jr, L. B., Perez, E. P., Araki, K., Takeuchi, T., Ito, A., Aoki, T. & Yamasaki, H. (2005). Prevalence of toxocariasis in northeastern Brazil based on serology using recombinant Toxocara canis antigen. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 72, 103-107.
38. Cooper, P. J. (2008). Toxocara canis infection: an important and neglected environmental risk factor for asthma? Clinical and Experimental Allergy, 38, 551-553.
39. Cooper, P. J. (2009). Interactions between helminth parasites and allergy. Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 9, 29-37.
40. Critchley, E. M., Vakil, S. D., Hutchinson, D. N. & Taylor, P. (1982). Toxoplasma, Toxocara, and epilepsy. Epilepsia, 23, 315-321.
41. Cruz, A. T., Franklin, G. Y. & Kaplan, S. L. (2008). Toxocariasis causing eosinophilic ascites. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 27, 563-564.
42. Cypess, R. H., Karol, M. H., Zidian, J. L., Glickman, L. T. & Gitlin, D. (1977). Larva-specific antibodies in patients with visceral larva migrans. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 135, 633-640.
43. Da Silva, F. T., Yamamoto, J. H., Hirata, C. E., Nakashima, Y., Chieffi, P. P. & Olivalves, E. (2008). Optical coherence tomography of a subretinal granuloma in simultaneous visceral and ocular larva migrans. Retinal Cases and Brief Reports, 2, 316.
44. Dada, B. J. & Lindquist, W. D. (1979). Prevalence of Toxocara spp. eggs in some public grounds and highway rest areas in Kansas. Journal of Helminthology, 53, 145-146.
45. Damian, M. M., Martins, M., Sardinha, J. F., Souza, L. O., Chaves, A. & Tavares, A. M. (2007). Frequency of the antibody anti-Toxocara canis in a community along the Uatumã River, state of Amazonas. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 40, 661-664.
46. De Brito, T., Chieffi, P. P., Peres, B. A., Santos, R. T., Gayotto, L. C. C., Viana, M. R., Porta, G. P. & Alves, V. A. F. (1994). Immunohistochemical detection of toxocaral antigens in human liver biopsies. International Journal of Surgical Pathology, 2, 117-124.
47. De Savigny, D. H. (1975). In vitro maintenance of Toxocara canis larvae and a simple method for production of Toxocara ES antigen for use in serodiagnostic tests for visceral larva migrans. Journal of Parasitology, 61, 781-782.
48. De Savigny, D. H., Voller A. & Woodruff, A. W. (1979). Toxocariasis: serological diagnosis by enzyme immunoassay. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 32, 284-288.
49. De Souza, E. C. & Nakashima, Y. (1995). Diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis: report of transvitreal surgical removal of a subretinal nematode. Ophthalmology, 102, 1183-1186.
50. De Visser, L., Rothova, A., de Boer, J. H, van Loon, A. M., Kerkhoff, F. T., Canninga-van Dijk, M. R., Weersink, A. Y. & de Groot-Mijnes, J. D. (2008). Diagnosis of ocular toxocariasis by establishing intraocular antibody production. American Journal of Ophthalmology, 145, 369-374.
51. Dean-Hart, J. C. & Raistrick, E. R. (1977). Adult toxocariasis. Uniocular retinal lesions in the 20- to 50-year age group. Transactions of Ophthalmology, 97, 164-167.
52. Del Prete, G. F., de Carli, C. M., Mastromauro, C., Biagiotti, R., Macchia, D., Falagiani, P., Ricci, M. & Romagnani, S. (1991). Purified protein derivative of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and excretory-secretory antigen(s) of Toxocara canis expand human T cells with stable and opposite (type 1 T helper or type 2 T helper) profile of cytokine production. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 88, 346-350.
53. Desowitz, R. S., Rudoy, R. & Barnwell, J. W. (1981). Antibodies to canine helminth parasites in asthmatic and nonasthmatic children. International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology, 65, 361-366.
54. Despommier, D. (2003). Toxocariasis: clinical aspects, epidemiology, medical ecology, and molecular aspects. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 16, 265-272.
55. Doǧan, N., Dinleyici, E. C., Bor, O., Töz, S. O. & Ozbel, Y. (2007). Seroepidemiological survey for Toxocara canis infection in the northwestern part of Turkey. Turkiye Parazitoloji Dergisi, 31, 288-291.
56. Dolinsky, Z. S., Burright, R. G., Donovick, P. J., Glickman, L. T., Babish, J., Summers, B. & Cypess, R. H. (1981). Behavioral effects of lead and Toxocara canis in mice. Science, 213, 1142-1144.
57. Düwell, D. (1984). The prevalence of Toxocara eggs in the sand of children's playgrounds in Frankfurt/M. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 78, 633-636.
58. Dziemian, E., Zarnowska, H., Kołodziej-Sobocińska, M. & Machnicka, B. (2008). Determination of the relative avidity of the specific IgG antibodies in human toxocariasis. Parasite Immunology, 30, 187-190.
59. Elefant, G. R., Shimizu, S. H., Sanchez, M. C. A., Jacob, C. M. A. & Ferreira, A. W. (2006). A serological follow-up of toxocariasis patients after chemotherapy based on the detection of IgG, IgA and IgE antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Analysis, 20, 164-172.
60. Emehelu, C. O. & Fakae, B. B. (1986). Prevalence of Toxocara canis ova on playgrounds of nursery schools in Nsukka, Nigeria. International Journal of Zoonoses, 13, 158-161.
61. Faccioli, L. H., Mokwa, V. F., Silva, C. L., Rocha, G. M., Araújo, J. I., Nahori, M. A. & Vargaftig, B. B. (1996). IL-5 drives eosinophils from bone marrow to blood and tissues in a guinea-pig model of visceral larva migrans syndrome. Mediators of Inflammation, 5, 24-31.
62. Fallah, M., Azimi, A. & Taherkhani, H. (2007). Seroprevalence of toxocariasis in children aged 1-9 years in western Islamic Republic of Iran, 2003. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 13, 1073-1077.
63. Fan, C. K., Hung, C. C., Du, W. Y., Liao, C. W. & Su, K. E. (2004a). Seroepidemiology of Toxocara canis infection among mountain aboriginal schoolchildren living in contaminated districts in eastern Taiwan. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 9, 1312-1318.
64. Fan, C. K., Lan, H. S., Hung, C. C., Chung, W. C., Liao, C. W., Du, W. Y. & Su, K. E. (2004b). Seroepidemiology of Toxocara canis infection among mountain aboriginal adults in Taiwan. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 71, 216-221.
65. Fan, C. K., Liao, C. W., Kao, T. C., Li, M. H., Du, W. Y. & Su, K. E. (2005). Sero-epidemiology of Toxocara canis infection among aboriginal schoolchildren in the mountanous areas of north-eastern Taiwan. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 99, 593-600.
66. Felberg, N. T., Shields, J. A. & Federman, J. L. (1981). Antibody to Toxocara canis in aqueous humor. Archives of Ophthalmology, 99, 1563-1564.
67. Fenoy, S., Rodero, M., Pons, E., Aguila, C. & Cuéllar, C. (2008). Follow-up of antibody avidity in BALB/c mice infected with Toxocara canis. Parasitology, 135, 725-733.
68. Fernando, D., Wickramasinghe, P., Kapilananda, G., Dewasurendra, R. L., Amarasooriya, M. & Dayaratne, A. (2009). Toxocara seropositivity in Sri Lankan children with asthma. Pediatrics International, 51, 241-245.
69. Fernando, S. D., Wickramasinghe, V. P., Kapilananda, G. M., Devasurendra, R. L., Amarasooriya, J. D. & Dayaratne, H. G. (2007). Epidemiological aspects and risk factors of toxocariasis in a pediatric population in Sri Lanka. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 38, 983-990.
70. Ferreira, M. U., Rubinsky-Elefant, G., Castro, T. G., Hoffmann, E. H. E., da Silva-Nunes, M., Cardoso, M. A. & Muniz, P. T. (2007). Bottle feeding and exposure to Toxocara as risk factors for wheezing illness among under-five Amazonian children: a population-based cross-sectional survey. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 53, 119-124.
71. Fillaux, J., Santillan, G., Magnaval, J. F., Jensen, O., Larrieu, E. & Sobrino-Becaria, C. D. (2007). Epidemiology of toxocariasis in a steppe environment: the Patagonia study. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 76, 1144-1147.
72. Finsterer, J. & Auer, H. (2007). Neurotoxocarosis. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 49, 279-287.
73. Fisher, M. (2003). Toxocara cati: an underestimated zoonotic agent. Trends in Parasitology, 19, 167-170.
74. Fitzsimmons, C. M. & Dunne, D. W. (2009). Survival of the fittest: allergology or parasitology? Trends in Parasitology, 25, 447-451.
75. Flohr, C., Quinnell, R. J. & Britton, J. (2009). Do helminth parasites protect against atopy and allergic disease? Clinical and Experimental Allergy, 39, 20-32.
76. Fogt-Wyrwas, R., Jarosz, W. & Mizgajska-Wiktor, H. (2007). Utilizing a polymerase chain reaction method for the detection of Toxocara canis and T. cati eggs in soil. Journal of Helminthology, 81, 75-78.
77. Gass, J. D., Gilbert, W. R., Guerry, R. K. & Scelfo, R. (1978). Diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis. Ophthalmology, 85, 521-545.
78. Gavignet, B., Piarroux, R., Aubin, F., Millon, L. & Humbert, P. (2008). Cutaneous manifestations of human toxocariasis. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 59, 1031-1042.
79. Genchi, C., di Sacco, B., Gatti, S., Sangalli, G. & Scaglia, M. (1990). Epidemiology of human toxocariasis in northern Italy. Parassitologia, 32, 313-319.
80. Georgiou, C., Efstathiades, Y., Dimitriou, N., Theophanous, M. & Voros, D. (2007). An unusual case of Toxocara canis of the ascending colon. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 19, 1149-1153.
81. Gillespie, S. H., Bidwell, D., Voller, A., Robertson, B. D. & Maizels, R. M. (1993). Diagnosis of human toxocariasis by antigen capture enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 46, 551-554.
82. Glickman, L. T., Schantz, P. M. & Cypess, R. H. (1979). Epidemiological characteristics and clinical findings in patients with serologically proven toxocariasis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 73, 254-258.
83. Glickman, L. T., Schantz, P. M. & Grieve, R. B. (1986). Toxocariasis. In Immunodiagnosis of Parasitic Diseases. Volume 1: Helminthic Diseases, eds Walls, K. W. & Schantz, P. M. pp. 201-231. London: Academic Press.
84. Glickman, L. T., Magnaval, J. F, Domanski, L. M., Shofer, F. S., Lauria, S. S., Gottstein, B. & Brochier, B. (1987). Visceral larva migrans in French adults: a new disease syndrome? American Journal of Epidemiology, 125, 1019-1034.
85. González-Quintella, A., Gude, F., Campos, J., Garea, M. T., Romero, P. A., Rey, J., Meijide, L. M., Fernández-Merino, M. C. & Vidal, C. (2006). Toxocara infection seroprevalence and its relationship with atopic features in a general adult population. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, 139, 317-324.
86. Guimarães, A. M., Alves, E. G., de Rezende, G. F. & Rodrigues, M. C. (2005). Toxocara sp. eggs and Ancylostoma sp. larvae in public parks, Brazil. Revista de Saúde Pública, 39, 293-295.
87. Gunaseelan, L., Ganesan, P. I., Ramadass, P., Basheer, M. A. & Raghavan, N. (1992). Incidence of Toxocara ova in the environment. Indian Veterinary Journal, 69, 308-309.
88. Hayashi, E., Tuda, J., Imada, M., Akao, N. & Fujita, K. (2005). The high prevalence of asymptomatic Toxocara infection among schoolchildren in Manado, Indonesia. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 36, 1399-1406.
89. Hermanowska-Szpakowicz, T., Kondrusik, M., Swierzbinska, R., Zajkowska, J. & Pancewicz, S. (2001). Incidence of antibody detection against Toxocara canis and clinical symptoms in inhabitants of north-eastern Poland. Polski Merkuriusz Lekarski, 57, 168-170.
90. Herrmann, N., Glickman, L. T., Schantz, P. M., Weston, M. G. & Domanski, L. M. (1985). Seroprevalence of zoonotic toxocariasis in the United States: 1971-1973. American Journal of Epidemiology, 122, 890-896.
91. Hogan, M. J., Kimura, S. J. & Spencer, W. H. (1965). Visceral larva migrans and peripheral retinitis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 194, 1345-1347.
92. Holland, C. V. & Cox, D. M. (2001). Toxocara in the mouse: a model for parasite-altered host behaviour? Journal of Helminthology, 75, 125-135.
93. Holland, C. V., O'Connor, P., Taylor, M., Hughes, G., Girdwood, R. & Smith, H. (1991). Families, parks, gardens, and toxocariasis. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 23, 225-231.
94. Holland, C. V., O'Lorcain, P., Taylor, M. R. & Kelly, A. (1995). Sero-epidemiology of toxocariasis in school children. Parasitology, 110, 535-545.
95. Hotez, P. J. & Wilkins, P. P. (2009). Toxocariasis: America's most common neglected infection of poverty and a helminthiasis of global importance? PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 3, e400.
96. Hubner, J., Uhlikova, M. & Leissova, M. (2001). Diagnosis of the early phase of larval toxocariasis using IgG avidity. Epidemiologie, Mikrobiologie, Imunologie, 50, 67-70.
97. Irvine, W. C. & Irvine, A. R. (1959). Nematode endophthalmitis: Toxocara canis. Report of one case. American Journal of Ophthalmology, 47, 185-191.
98. Ishida, M. M. I., Rubinsky-Elefant, G., Ferreira, A. W., Hoshino-Shimizu, S. & Vaz, A. J. (2003). Helminth antigens (Taenia solium, Taenia crassiceps, Toxocara canis, Schistosoma mansoni and Echinococcus granulosus) and cross-reactivities in human infections and immunized animals. Acta Tropica, 89, 73-84.
99. Jacob, C. M., Pastorino, A. C., Peres, B. A., Mello, E. O., Okay, Y. & Oselka, G. W. (1994). Clinical and laboratorial features of visceral toxocariasis in infancy. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 36, 19-26.
100. Jarosz, W., Mizgajska-Wiktor, H., Kirwan, P., Konarski, J., Rychlicki, W. & Wawrzyniak, G. (2010). Developmental age, physical fitness and Toxocara seroprevalence amongst lower-secondary students living in rural areas contaminated with Toxocara eggs. Parasitology, 137, 53-63.
101. Jiménez, J. F., Valladares, B., Fernández-Palacios, J. M., de Armas, F. & del Castillo, A. (1997). A serological study of human toxocariasis in the Canary Islands (Spain): environmental influences. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 56, 113-115.
102. Kanafani, Z. A., Skoury, A., Araj, G. F., El-Khoury, M., Sawaya, R. A., Atweh, S. F. & Kanj, S. S. (2006). Seroprevalence of toxocariasis in Lebanon: a pilot survey. Parasitology, 132, 635-639.
103. Katagiri, S. & Oliveira-Sequeira, T. C. (2008). Prevalence of dog intestinal parasites and risk perception of zoonotic infection by dog owners in São Paulo state, Brazil. Zoonoses and Public Health, 55, 406-413.
104. Kennedy, M. W., Maizels, R. M., Meghji, M., Young, L., Qureshi, F. & Smith, H. V. (1987). Species-specific and common epitopes on the secreted and surface antigens of Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati infective larvae. Parasite Immunology, 9, 407-420.
105. Kenny, J. V., MacCabe, R. J., Smith, H. V. & Holland, C. (1995). Serological evidence for the presence of toxocariasis in the Turkana district of Kenya. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 89, 377-378.
106. Kulldorff, M. & Nagarwalla, N. (1995). Spatial disease clusters: detection and inference. Statistics in Medicine, 14, 799-819.
107. Lescano, S. A. Z., Chieffi, P. P., Peres, B. A., Mello, E. O., Velarde, C. N., Salinas, A. A. & Rojas, C. E. (1998). Soil contamination and human infection by Toxocara sp. in the urban area of Lima, Peru. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 93, 733-734.
108. Lim, J. H. (2008). Toxocariasis of the liver: visceral larva migrans. Abdominal Imaging, 33, 151-156.
109. Luzna-Lyskov, A. (2000). Toxocarosis in children living in a highly contaminated area. An epidemiological and clinical study. Acta Parasitologica, 45, 40-42.
110. Lynch, N. R., Eddy, K., Hodgen, A. N., Lopez, R. I. & Turner, K. J. (1988a). Seroprevalence of Toxocara canis infection in tropical Venezuela. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 82, 275-281.
111. Lynch, N. R., Wilkes, L. K., Hodgen, A. N. & Turner, K. J. (1988b). Specificity of Toxocara ELISA in tropical populations. Parasite Immunology, 10, 323-337.
112. Magnaval, J. & Baixench, M. (1993). Toxocariasis in the Midi Pyrenées region. In Toxocara and Toxocariasis. Clinical, Epidemiological and Molecular Perspectives, eds Lewis, J. W. & Maizels, R. M. pp. 63-69. London: British Society for Parasitology.
113. Magnaval, J. F. (1995). Comparative efficacy of diethylcarbamazine and mebendazole for the treatment of human toxocariasis. Parasitology, 110, 529-533.
114. Magnaval, J. F., Fabre, R., Maurières, P., Charlet, J. P. & de Larrard, B. (1991). Application of the western blotting procedure for the immunodiagnosis of human toxocariasis. Parasitology Research, 77, 697-702.
115. Magnaval, J. F., Fabre, R., Maurières, P., Charlet, J. P. & de Larrard, B. (1992). Evaluation of an immunoenzymatic assay detecting specific anti-Toxocara immunoglobulin E for diagnosis and posttreatment follow-up of human toxocariasis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 30, 2269-2274.
116. Magnaval, J. F., Michault, A., Calon, N. & Charlet, J. P. (1994). Epidemiology of human toxocariasis in La Réunion. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 88, 531-533.
117. Maizels, R. M., Gems, D. H. & Page, A. P. (1993). Synthesis and secretion of TES antigens from Toxocara canis infective larvae. In Toxocara and Toxocariasis. Clinical, Epidemiological and Molecular Perspectives, eds Lewis, J. W. & Maizels, R. M. pp. 141-150. London: British Society for Parasitology.
118. Marmor, M., Glickman, L. T., Shofer, F., Faich, L. A., Rosenberg, C., Cornblatt, B. & Friedman, S. (1987). Toxocara infection in children: epidemiologic and neuropsychologic findings. American Journal of Public Health, 77, 554-559.
119. Mohamad, S., Azmi, N. C. & Noordin, R. (2009). Development and evaluation of a sensitive and specific assay for diagnosis of human toxocariasis by use of three recombinant antigens (TES-26, TES- 30USM, and TES-120). Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 47, 1712-1717.
120. Montalvo, A. M., Espino, A. M., Escalante, G. & Finlay, C. M. (1994). Study of seroprevalence of toxocariasis in an infantile population in the city of Havana. Revista Cubana de Medicina Tropical, 46, 156-158.
121. Morimatsu, Y., Akao, N., Akiyoshi, H., Kawazu, T., Okabe, Y. & Aizawa, H. (2006). A familial case of visceral larva migrans after ingestion of raw chicken livers: appearance of specific antibody in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of the patients. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 75, 303-306.
122. Muradian, V., Gennari, S. M., Glickman, L. T. & Pinheiro, S. R. (2005). Epidemiological aspects of visceral larva migrans in children living at São Remo Community, São Paulo (SP), Brazil. Veterinary Parasitology, 134, 93-97.
123. Musso, C., Castelo, J. S., Tsanaclis, A. M. & Pereira, F. E. (2007). Prevalence of Toxocara-induced liver granulomas, detected by immunohistochemistry, in a series of autopsies at a Children's Reference Hospital in Vitó ria, ES, Brazil. Virchows Archives, 450, 411-447.
124. Nagakura, K., Tachibana, H., Kaneda, Y. & Kato, Y. (1989). Toxocariasis possibly caused by ingesting raw chicken. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 160, 735-736.
125. Nelson, S., Greene, T. & Ernhart, C. B. (1996). Toxocara canis infection in preschool age children: risk factors and the cognitive development of preschool children. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 18, 167-174.
126. Nichols, R. L. (1956). The etiology of visceral larva migrans. Journal of Parasitology, 42, 349-399.
127. Nicoletti, A., Bartoloni, A., Reggio, A., Bartalesi, F., Roselli, M., Sofia, V., Rosado Chavez, J., Gamboa Barahona, H., Paradisi, F., Cancrini, G., Tsang, V. C. & Hall, A. J. (2002). Epilepsy, cysticercosis, and toxocariasis: a population-based case-control study in rural Bolivia. Neurology, 58, 1256-1261.
128. Nicoletti, A., Bartoloni, A., Sofia, V., Mantella, A., Nsengiyumva, G., Frescaline, G. & Preux, P. M. (2007). Epilepsy and toxocariasis: a case-control study in Burundi. Epilepsia, 48, 894-899.
129. Nicoletti, A., Sofia, V., Mantella, A., Vitale, G., Contrafatto, D., Sorbello, V., Biondi, R., Preux, P. M., Garcia, H. H., Zappia, M. & Bartoloni, A. (2008). Epilepsy and toxocariasis: a case-control study in Italy. Epilepsia, 49, 594-599.
130. Noordin, R., Smith, H. V., Mohamad, S., Maizels, R. M. & Fong, M. Y. (2005). Comparison of IgGELISA and IgG4-ELISA for Toxocara serodiagnosis. Acta Tropica, 93, 57-62.
131. Norhaida, A., Suharni, M., Liza Sharmani, A. T., Tuda, J. & Rahmah, N. (2008). rTES-30USM: cloning via assembly PCR, expression, and evaluation of usefulness in the detection of toxocariasis. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 102, 151-160.
132. O'Lorcain, P. (1994). Epidemiology of Toxocara spp. In stray dogs and cats in Dublin, Ireland. Journal of Helminthology, 68, 331-336.
133. Ota, K. V., Dimaras, H., Héon, E., Babyn, P. S., Yau, Y. C., Read, S., Budning, A., Gallie, B. L. & Chan, H. S. (2009). Toxocariasis mimicking liver, lung, and spinal cord metastases from retinoblastoma. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 28, 252-254.
134. Oteifa, N. M. & Moustafa, M. A. (1997). The potential risk of contracting toxocariasis in Heliopolis district, Cairo, Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 27, 197-203.
135. Overgaauw, P. A. M. (1997). Aspects of Toxocara epidemiology: human toxocarosis. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 23, 215-331.
136. Overgaauw, P. A. M., van Zutphen, L., Hoek, D., Yaya, F. O., Roelfsema, J., Pinelli, E., van Knapen, F. & Kortbeek, L. M. (2009). Zoonotic parasites in fecal samples and fur from dogs and cats in The Netherlands. Veterinary Parasitology, 163, 115-122.
137. Paludo, M. L., Falavigna, D. L., Elefant, G. R., Gomes, M. L., Baggio, M. L., Amadei, L. B. & Falavigna-Guilherme, A. L. (2007). Frequency of Toxocara infection in children attended by the health public service of Maringá, south Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 49, 343-348.
138. Paquet-Durand, I., Hernández, J., Dolz, G., Zuñiga, J. J. R., Schneider, T. & Epe, C. (2007). Prevalence of Toxocara spp., Toxacaris leonina and Ancylostomidae in public parks and beaches in different climate zones of Costa Rica. Acta Tropica, 104, 30-37.
139. Park, H. Y., Lee, S. U., Huh, S., Kong, Y. &Magnaval, J. F. (2002). A seroepidemiological survey for toxocariasis in apparently healthy residents in Gangwon-do, Korea. Korean Journal of Parasitology, 40, 113-117.
140. Paul, M., Stefaniak, J., Twardosz-Pawlik, H. & Pecold, K. (2009). The co-occurrence of Toxocara ocular and visceral larva migrans syndrome: a case series. Cases Journal, 2, 6881.
141. Pawlowski, Z. (2001). Toxocariasis in humans: clinical expression and treatment dilemma. Journal of Helminthology, 75, 299-305.
142. Pinelli, E., Brandes, S., Dormans, J., Gremmer, E. & van Loveren, H. (2008). Infection with the roundworm Toxocara canis leads to exacerbation of experimental allergic airway inflammation. Clinical and Experimental Allergy, 38, 649-658.
143. Prestes-Carneiro, L. E., Santarém, V., Zago, S. C. S., Miguel, N. A., Farias, S. F., Villas, R., Vaz, A. J. & Rubinsky-Elefant, G. (2008). Sero-epidemiology of toxocariasis in a rural settlement in São Paulo state, Brazil. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 102, 347-356.
144. Prestes-Carneiro, L. E., Souza, D. H. P., Moreno, G. C., Troiani, C., Santarém, V., Zago, S. C. S., Miguel, N. A., Freitas, S. B. Z., Faria, R., Martini, L., Rubinsky-Elefant, G., Iha, A. & Vaz, A. J. (2009). Toxocariasis/cysticercosis seroprevalence in a longterm rural settlement, São Paulo, Brazil. Parasitology, 136, 681-689.
145. Prunier, F., Delpine, S. & Victor, J. (2001). Leoffler's fibroblastic endocarditis. A report of a case complicating toxocariasis. Archives des Maladies du Coeur et des Vaisseaux, 94, 226-230.
146. Quet, F., Preux, P. M. & Nicoletti, A. (2008). Comment on 'Epilepsy and seropositivity rates of Toxocara canis and Toxoplasma gondii'. Seizure, 17, 296.
147. Radman, N. E., Archelli, S. M., Fonrouge, R. D., del V Guardis, M. & Linzitto, O. (2000). Human toxocarosis. Its seroprevalence in the city of La Plata. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 95, 281-285.
148. Rai, S. K., Uga, S., Ono, K., Nakanishi, M., Shrestha, H. G. & Matsumura, T. (1996). Seroepidemiological study of Toxocara infection in Nepal. Southeast Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 27, 286-290.
149. Raistrick, E. R. & Dean-Hart, J. C. (1975). Adult toxocaral infection with focal retinal lesion. British Medical Journal, iii, 416.
150. Rayes, A. A. & Lambertucci, J. R. (2001). Human toxocariasis as a possible cause of eosinophilic arthritis. Rheumatology, 49, 109-110.
151. Robertson, B. D., Burkot, T. R., Gillespie, S. H., Kennedy, M. W., Wanbai, F. & Maizels, R. M. (1988). Detection of circulating parasite antigen and specific antibody in Toxocara canis infections. Clinical and Experimental Immunology, 74, 236-241.
152. Roddie, G., Stafford, P., Holland, C. & Wolfe, A. (2008). Contamination of dog hair with eggs of Toxocara canis. Veterinary Parasitology, 152, 85-93.
153. Rokicki, J., Kucharska, A. P., Dzido, J. & Karczewska, D. (2007). Contamination of playgrounds in Gdańsk city with parasite eggs. Wiadomości Parazytologiczn, 53, 227-230.
154. Roldán, W. H. & Espinoza, Y. A. (2009). Evaluation of an enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot test for the confirmatory serodiagnosis of human toxocariasis. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 104, 411-418.
155. Roldán, W. H., Cornejo, W. & Espinoza, Y. (2006). Evaluation of the dot enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in comparison with standard ELISA for the immunodiagnosis of human toxocariasis. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 101, 71-74.
156. Roldán, W. H., Espinoza, Y. A., Huapaya, P. E., Huiza, A. F., Sevilla, C. R. & Jiménez, S. (2009). Frequency of human toxocariasis in a rural population from Cajamarca, Peru determined by DOTELISA test. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 51, 67-71.
157. Romasanta, A., Romero, J. L., Arias, M., Sánchez-Andrade, R., López, C., Suárez, J. L., Días, P., Díez- Baños, P., Morrondo, P. & Paz-Silva, A. (2003). Diagnosis of parasitic zoonosis by immunoenzymatic assays - analysis of cross-reactivity among the excretory/secretory antigens of Fasciola hepatica, Toxocara canis, and Ascaris suum. Immunological Investigation, 32, 131-142.
158. Rosenblatt, J. S., Porter, J. & Marcus, S. (1991). Eosinophilia, lead poisoning and Toxacaris canis infection in children. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 33, 495-497.
159. Rubinsky-Elefant, G., da Silva-Nunes, M., Malafronte, R. S., Muniz, P. T. & Ferreira, M. U. (2008). Human toxocariasis in rural Brazilian Amazonia: seroprevalence, risk factors, and spatial distribution. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 79, 93-98.
160. Sabrosa, N. A. & de Souza, E. C. (2001). Nematode infections of the eye: toxocariasis and diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis. Current Opinion in Ophthalmology, 12, 450-454.
161. Sadjjadi, S. M., Khosravi, M., Mehrabani, D. & Orya, A. (2000). Seroprevalence of Toxocara infection in schoool children in Shiraz, southern Iran. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 46, 327-330.
162. Salem, G. & Schantz, P. (1992). Toxocaral visceral larva migrans after ingestion of raw lamb liver. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 15, 743-744.
163. Schantz, P. M. (1989). Toxocara larva migrans now. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 41, 21-34.
164. Sharghi, N., Schantz, P. M., Caracmco, L., Ballas, K., Teague, B. A. & Hotez, P. J. (2001). Environmental exposure to Toxocara as a possible risk factor for asthma: a clinic-based case-control study. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 32, e111-e116.
165. Sharkey, J. A. & McKay, P. S. (1993). Ocular toxocariasis in a patient with repeatedly negative ELISA titre to Toxocara canis. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 77, 253-254.
166. Shetty, A. K. & Aviles, A. H. (1999). Nephrotic syndrome associated with Toxocara canis infection. Annals of Pediatrics, 18, 297-300.
167. Shields, J. A. (1977). Ocular toxocariasis. A review. Surveys in Ophthalmology, 28, 319-322.
168. Shimizu, T. (1993). Prevalence of Toxocara eggs in sandpits in Tokushima city and its outskirts. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 55, 807-811.
169. Shoop, W. L. (1991). Vertical transmission of helminths: hypobiosis and amphiparatenesis. Parasitology Today, 7, 51-54.
170. Smith, H., Holland, C., Taylor, M., Magnaval, J. F., Schantz, P. & Maizels, R. (2009). How common is human toxocariasis? Towards standardizing our knowledge. Trends in Parasitology, 25, 182-188.
171. Smith, H. V. & Kennedy, M. W. (1993). Significance and quantification of antigen-specific IgE in helminthic infections of humans. Journal of Clinical Immunoassay, 16, 131-143.
172. Stensvold, C. R., Skov, J., Moller, L. N. Jensen, P. M., Kapel, C. M. O., Petersen, E. & Nielsen, H. V. (2009). Seroprevalence of human toxocariasis in Denmark. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology, 16, 1372-1373.
173. Stürchler, D., Schubarth, P., Gualzata, M., Gottstein, B. & Oettli, A. (1989). Thiabendazole vs. albendazole in treatment of toxocariasis: a clinical trial. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 83, 473-478.
174. Stürchler, D., Weiss, N. & Gassner, M. (1990). Transmission of toxocariasis. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 162, 571.
175. Takamoto, M., Ovington, K. S., Behm, C. A., Sugane, K., Young, I. G. & Matthaei, K. I. (1997). Eosinophilia, parasite burden and lung damage in Toxocara canis infection in C57B1/6 mice genetically deficient in IL-5. Immunology, 90, 511-517.
176. Taylor, M. R. H. (2001). The epidemiology of ocular toxocariasis. Journal of Helminthology, 75, 109-118.
177. Taylor, M. R. H., Keane, C. T., O'Connor, P., Girdwood, R. W. A. & Smith, H. (1987). Clinical features of covert toxocariasis. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 19, 693-696.
178. Taylor, M. R. H., Keane, C. T., O'Connor, P., Mulvihill, E. & Holland, C. (1988). The expanded spectrum of toxocaral disease. Lancet, i, 692-695.
179. Tiyo, R., Guedes, T. A., Falavigna, D. L., Falavigna- Guilherme, A. L. (2008). Seasonal contamination of public squares and lawns by parasites with zoonotic potential in southern Brazil. Journal of Helminthology, 82, 1-6.
180. Torgerson, P. R., Rosenheim, K., Tanner, I., Ziadinov, I., Grimm, F., Brunner, M., Shaiken, S., Shaikenov, B., Rysmukhambetova, A. & Deplazes P. (2009). Echinococcosis, toxocarosis and toxoplasmosis screening in a rural community in eastern Kazakhstan. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 14, 341-348.
181. Uga, S. (1993). Prevalence of Toxocara eggs and number of faecal deposits from dogs and cats in sandpits of public parks in Japan. Journal of Helminthology, 67, 78-82.
182. Watthanakulpanich, D., Smith, H. V., Hobbs, G., Whalley, A. J. & Billington, D. (2008). Application of Toxocara canis excretory-secretory antigens and IgG subclass antibodies (IgG1-4) in serodiagnostic assays of human toxocariasis. Acta Tropica, 106, 90-95.
183. Wells, D. L. (2007). Public understanding of toxocariasis. Public Health, 121, 187-188.
184. Wickramasinghe, S., Yatawara, L., Nagataki, M., Takamoto, M., Watanabe, Y., Rajapakse, R. P., Uda, K., Suzuki, T. & Agatsuma, T. (2008). Development of a highly sensitive IgG-ELISA based on recombinant arginine kinase of Toxocara canis for serodiagnosis of visceral larva migrans in the murine model. Parasitology Research, 103, 853-858.
185. Wilder, H. C. (1950). Nematode endophthalmitis. Transactions of the American Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, 55, 99-109.
186. Wolfe, A. & Wright, I. P. (2003). Human toxocariasis and direct contact with dogs. Veterinary Record, 152, 419-422.
187. Won, K. Y., Kruszon-Moran, D., Schantz, P. M. & Jones, J. L. (2008). National seroprevalence and risk factors for zoonotic Toxocara spp. infection. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 79, 552-557.
188. Woodruff, A. W., Bisseru, B. & Bowe, J. C. (1966). Infection with animal helminths as a factor in causing poliomyelitis and epilepsy. British Medical Journal, i, 1576-1579.
189. Woodruff, A. W., de Savigny, D. H. & Hendy-Ibbs, P. M. (1982). Toxocaral and toxoplasmal antibodies in cat breeders and in Icelanders exposed to cats but not to dogs. British Medical Journal, 284, 309-310.
190. Yamasaki, H., Araki, K., Lim, P. K. C., Zasmy, N., Mak, J. W., Taib, R. & Aoki, T. (2000). Development of a highly specific recombinant Toxocara canis second-stage larva excretory-secretory antigen for immunodiagnosis of human toxocariasis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 38, 1409-1413.
191. Yoshiji, H., Yoshikawa, M., Kaji, K. & Fukui, H. (2007). Eosinophilic cholecystitis as a rare manifestation of visceral larva migrans. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 13, 6119.
192. Zarnowska, H., Borecka, A., Gawor, J., Marczyńska, M., Dobosz, S. & Basiak, W. (2008). A serological and epidemiological evaluation of risk factors for toxocariasis in children in central Poland. Journal of Helminthology, 82, 123-127.
193. Zhu, X. Q., Gasser, R. B., Chilton, N. B. & Jacobs, D. E. (2001). Molecular approaches for studying ascaridoid nematodes with zoonotic potential, with an emphasis on Toxocara species. Journal of Helminthology, 75, 101-108.