Relationship between tap water hardness, magnesium, and calcium concentration and mortality due to ischemic heart disease or stroke in the Netherlands

Environmental Health Perspectives

Volumn 118, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 414-420

  Leurs, Lina J ^a   Schouten, Leo J ^a   Mons, Margreet N ^b   Goldbohm, R Alexandra ^c   Van Den Brandt, Piet A ^a  

^a MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b KWR WATERCYCLE RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Netherlands)

^c TNO   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Calcium; Cohort study; Ischemic heart disease; Magnesium; Stroke; Water hardness

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM; MAGNESIUM; TAP WATER;

ADULT; AGED; ARTICLE; CASE REPORT; COHORT ANALYSIS; CONFIDENCE INTERVAL; DIET; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; FEMALE; FOLLOW UP; GENEALOGY; HAZARD RATIO; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HUMAN; INFORMATION; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIFESTYLE; MALE; MORTALITY; NETHERLANDS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; STROKE; WATER HARDNESS;

AGED; CALCIUM; COHORT STUDIES; FEMALE; HUMANS; MAGNESIUM; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA; NETHERLANDS; STROKE; WATER; WATER POLLUTANTS, CHEMICAL; WATER SUPPLY;

EID: 77649202374     PISSN: 00916765     EISSN: 15529924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0900782     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Anderson TW, Hewitt D. 1975. Mortality and water hardness [letter]. Lancet 1(7911):868.
2. Anderson TW, Neri LC, Schreiber GB, Talbot FD, Zdrojewski A. 1975. Ischemic heart disease, water hardness and myocardial magnesium [letter]. Can Med Assoc J 113(3):199-203.
3. Baush-Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA, van't Veer P, Sturmans F, Hermus RJJ. 1988. Results of the methodological study for the design of a simplified, self-administered questionnaire. In: Diet, Hormones and Cancer: Methodological Issues for Prospective Studies (Riboli E, Saracci S, eds). IARC Technical Report No. 4. Lyon, France:International Agency for Research on Cancer, 79-89.
4. Burton A. 2008. Hard data for hard water. Environ Health Perspect 116:A114.
5. Catling LA, Abubakar I, Lake IR, Swift L, Hunter PR. 2008. A systematic review of analytical observational studies investigating the association between cardiovascular disease and drinking water hardness. J Water Health 6(4):433-442.
6. Chakraborti S, Chakraborti T, Mandal M, Mandal A, Das S, Ghosh S. 2002. Protective role of magnesium in cardiovascular diseases: a review. Mol Cell Biochem 238(1-2):163-179.
7. Chipperfield B, Chipperfield JR. 1978. Differences in metal content of the heart muscle in death from ischemic heart disease. Am Heart J 95(6):732-737.
8. Chipperfield B, Chipperfield JR, Behr G, Burton P. 1976. Magnesium and potassium content of normal heart muscle in areas of hard and soft water. Lancet 1(7951):121-122.
9. Comstock GW, Cauthen GM, Helsing KJ. 1980. Water hardness at home and deaths from arteriosclerotic heart disease in Washington County, Maryland. Am J Epidemiol 112(2):209-216.
10. Durlach J. 1988. The importance of magnesium in water. In: Magnesium in Clinical Practice (Durlach J, ed). London, England:John Libbey and Company Ltd., 221-222.
11. Durlach J, Bara M, Guiet-Bara A. 1989. Magnesium level in drinking water: its importance in cardiovascular risk. In: Magnesium in Health and Disease (Itokawa Y, Durlach J, eds). London:John Libbey and Company Ltd., 173-182.
12. Eisenberg MJ. 1992. Magnesium deficiency and sudden death. Am Heart J 124(2):544-549.
13. Elin RJ. 1988. Magnesium metabolism in health and disease. In: Disease-a-Month (Bone RC, ed). Chicago:Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc, 161-219.
14. Elwood PC, Sweetnam PM, Beasley WH, Jones D, France R. 1980. Magnesium and calcium in the myocardium: cause of death and area differences. Lancet 2(8197):720-722.
15. Ferrandiz J, Abellan JJ, Gomez-Rubio V, Lopez-Quilez A, Sanmartin P, Abellan C, et al. 2004. Spatial analysis of the relationship between mortality from cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease and drinking water hardness. Environ Health Perspect 112:1037-1044.
16. Galan P, Preziosi P, Durlach V, Valeix P, Ribas L, Bouzid D, et al. 1997. Dietary magnesium intake in a French adult population. Magnes Res 10(4):321-328.
17. Gillies ME, Paulin HV. 1983. Variability of mineral intakes from drinking water: a possible explanation for the controversy over the relationship of water quality to cardiovascular disease. Int J Epidemiol 12(1):45-50.
18. Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA, Brants HA, van't Veer P, Al M, Sturmans F, et al. 1994. Validation of a dietary questionnaire used in a large-scale prospective cohort study on diet and cancer. Eur J Clin Nutr 48(4):253-265.
19. Greenland P, Knoll MD, Stamler J, Neaton JD, Dyer AR, Garside DB, et al. 2003. Major risk factors as antecedents of fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease events. JAMA 290(7):891-897.
20. Griffith LE, Guyatt GH, Cook RJ, Bucher HC, Cook DJ. 1999. The influence of dietary and nondietary calcium supplementation on blood pressure: an updated metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Hypertens 12(1 Pt 1):84-92.
21. Haring BS, Van Delft W. 1981. Changes in the mineral composition of food as a result of cooking in "hard" and "soft" waters. Arch Environ Health 36(1):33-35.
22. Hopps HC, Feder GL. 1986. Chemical qualities of water that contribute to human health in a positive way. Sci Total Environ 54:207-216.
23. Hornstra G, Barth CA, Galli C, Mensink RP, Mutanen M, Riemersma RA, et al. 1998. Functional food science and the cardiovascular system. Br J Nutr 80(Suppl 1):S113-146.
24. Kousa A, Havulinna AS, Moltchanova E, Taskinen O, Nikkarinen M, Eriksson J, et al. 2006. Calcium: magnesium ratio in local groundwater and incidence of acute myocardial infarction among males in rural Finland. Environ Health Perspect 114:730-734.
25. Kousa A, Havulinna AS, Moltchanova E, Taskinen O, Nikkarinen M, Salomaa V, et al. 2008. Magnesium in well water and the spatial variation of acute myocardial infarction incidence in rural Finland. Appl Geochem 23:632-640.
26. Kousa A, Moltchanova E, Viik-Kajander M, Rytkonen M, Tuomilehto J, Tarvainen T, et al. 2004. Geochemistry of ground water and the incidence of acute myocardial infarction in Finland. J Epidemiol Community Health 58(2):136-139.
27. Landin K. 1989. Skeletal muscle magnesium and drinking water magnesium level. Magnesium Bull 11:177-179.
28. Laurant P, Touyz RM. 2000. Physiological and pathophysiological role of magnesium in the cardiovascular system: implications in hypertension. J Hypertens 18(9):1177-1191.
29. Lin D, Wei LJ. 1989. The robust inference for the Cox proportional hazards model. J Am Stat Assoc 84(408):1074-1078.
30. Löwik MRH, Groot EH, Binnerts WT. 1982. Magnsium and public health: the impact of drinking water. Available: http://www.mgwater.com/public.shtml [accessed 21 January 2010].
31. Luoma H, Aromaa A, Helminen S, Murtomaa H, Kiviluoto L, Punsar S, et al. 1983. Risk of myocardial infarction in Finnish men in relation to fluoride, magnesium and calcium concentration in drinking water. Acta Med Scand 213(3):171-176.
32. Maheswaran R, Morris S, Falconer S, Grossinho A, Perry I, Wakefield J, et al. 1999. Magnesium in drinking water supplies and mortality from acute myocardial infarction in north west England. Heart 82(4):455-460.
33. Marque S, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Dartigues JF, Commenges D. 2003. Cardiovascular mortality and calcium and magnesium in drinking water: an ecological study in elderly people. Eur J Epidemiol 18(4):305-309.
34. Marx A, Neutra RR. 1997. Magnesium in drinking water and ischemic heart disease. Epidemiol Rev 19(2):258-272.
35. Monarca S, Donato F, Zerbini I, Calderon RL, Craun GF. 2006. Review of epidemiological studies on drinking water hardness and cardiovascular diseases. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 13(4):495-506.
36. Mons M, van Dijk H, Gatel D, Hesse S, Nguyen M-L. 2007. Softening, conditioning and the optimal composition of drinking water. Water21 - Magazine of the International Water Association Feb:19-20.
37. Morris JN, Crawford MD, Heady JA. 1961. Hardness of local water-supplies and mortality from cardiovascular disease in the County Boroughs of England and Wales. Lancet 1(7182):860-862.
38. Morris RW, Walker M, Lennon LT, Shaper AG, Whincup PH. 2008. Hard drinking water does not protect against cardiovascular disease: new evidence from the British Regional Heart Study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 15(2):185-189.
39. Morris RW, Whincup PH, Lampe FC, Walker M, Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG. 2001. Geographic variation in incidence of coronary heart disease in Britain: the contribution of established risk factors. Heart 86(3):277-283.
40. Nederlandse Voedings Middelen Tabel. 1983. Dutch Food Composition Table. The Hague, The Netherlands Nutrition Centre.
41. Nerbrand C, Agreus L, Lenner RA, Nyberg P, Svärdsudd K. 2003. The influence of calcium and magnesium in drinking water and diet on cardiovascular risk factors in individuals living in hard and soft water areas with differences in cardiovascular mortality. BMC Public Health 3:21; doi: doi:10.1186/1471- 2458-3-21 [Online 18 June 2003].
42. Nerbrand C, Svärdsudd K, Ek J, Tibblin G. 1992. Cardiovascular mortality and morbidity in seven counties in Sweden in relation to water hardness and geological settings. The project: myocardial infarction in mid-Sweden. Eur Heart J 13(6):721-727.
43. Peacock JM, Folsom AR, Arnett DK, Eckfeldt JH, Szklo M. 1999. Relationship of serum and dietary magnesium to incident hypertension: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Ann Epidemiol 9(3):159-165.
44. Pirkle JL, Schwartz J, Landis JR, Harlan WR. 1985. The relationship between blood lead levels and blood pressure and its cardiovascular risk implications. Am J Epidemiol 121(2):246-258.
45. Prentice R. 1986. A case-cohort design for epidemiologic cohort studies and disease prevention trials. Biometrika 73(1):1-11.
46. Punsar S, Karvonen MJ. 1979. Drinking water quality and sudden death: observations from west and east Finland. Cardiology 64(1):24-34.
47. Rosenlund M, Berglind N, Hallqvist J, Bellander T, Bluhm G. 2005. Daily intake of magnesium and calcium from drinking water in relation to myocardial infarction. Epidemiology 16(4):570-576.
48. Rubenowitz E, Axelsson G, Rylander R. 1996. Magnesium in drinking water and death from acute myocardial infarction. Am J Epidemiol 143(5):456-462.
49. Rubenowitz E, Axelsson G, Rylander R. 1999. Magnesium and calcium in drinking water and death from acute myo cardial infarction in women. Epidemiology 10(1):31-36.
50. Rubenowitz E, Molin I, Axelsson G, Rylander R. 2000. Magnesium in drinking water in relation to morbidity and mortality from acute myocardial infarction. Epidemiology 11(4):416-421.
51. Rylander R. 1996. Environmental magnesium deficiency as a cardiovascular risk factor. J Cardiovasc Risk 3(1):4-10.
52. Rylander R. 2008. Drinking water constituents and disease. J Nutr 138(2):423S-425S.
53. Sauvant MP, Pepin D. 2000. Geographic variation of the mortality from cardiovascular disease and drinking water in a French small area (Puy de Dome). Environ Res 84(3):219-227.
54. Schoenfeld D. 1982. Partial residuals for the proportional hazards regression model. Biometrika 69(1):239-241.
55. Sinclair MI, Schlösser O. 2007. Water softening: epidemiological evidence on calcium and magnesium in drinking water and cardiovascular disease. Water21 - Magazine of the International Water Association Feb:8-19.
56. Statistics Netherlands. 2007. Luxury foods (Dutch:Voedings en genotmiddelen [in Dutch]. Available: http://statline.cbs.nl/ StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37154&D1=43&D2= 1,11,21,31,41,51,61, 71,81-107&HDR=T&STB=G1&VW=T [accessed 27 May 2009].
57. Theophanides T, Angiboust JF, Polissiou M, Anastassopoulou J, Manfait M. 1990. Possible role of water structure in biological magnesium systems. Magnes Res 3(1):5-13.
58. van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, van't Veer P, Volovics A, Hermus RJ, Sturmans F. 1990. A large-scale prospective cohort study on diet and cancer in The Netherlands. J Clin Epidemiol 43(3):285-295.
59. VEWIN (Vereniging van Exploitanten van Waterbedrijven in Nederland). 1986. Statistiek wateronderzoek 1986 [in Dutch]. Rijswijk:Vereniging van Exploitanten van Waterbedrijven in Nederland.
60. Wacholder S, Gail M, Pee D. 1991. Selecting an efficient design for assessing exposure-disease relationships in an assembled cohort. Biometrics 47(1):63-76.
61. WHO. 1975. International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision. Geneva:World Health Organization.
62. WHO. 1979. Health Effects of the Removal of Substances Occurring Naturally in Drinking water, with Special Reference to Demineralized and Desalinated Water. EURO Reports and Studies 16. Copenhagen:World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe.
63. WHO. 1993. International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision. Geneva:World Health Organization.
64. WHO. 2005. Nutrients in Drinking Water. Geneva:World Health Organization. Available: http://www.who.int/water-sanitation-health/dwq/nutrientsindw/en/ index.html [accessed 22 January 2010].
65. WHO. 2006. WHO Meeting of Experts on the Possible Protective Effect of Hard Water Against Cardiovascular Disease, Washington, D.C. USA, 27-28 April 2006, Geneva:World Health Organization. Available: www.who.int/water-sanitation- health/gdwqrevision/cardiofullreport.pdf [accessed 26 January 2010].
66. WHO. 2008. WHO Meeting of Experts on the Possible Protective Effect of Hard Water Against Cardiovascular Disease, 21-22 January 2008. Geneva:World Health Organization.
67. Willett W, Stampfer MJ. 1986. Total energy intake: implications for epidemiologic analyses. Am J Epidemiol 124(1):17-27.
68. Wilson PW. 1999. Metabolic risk factors for coronary heart disease: current and future prospects. Curr Opin Cardiol 14(2):176-185.
69. Yang CY. 1998. Calcium and magnesium in drinking water and risk of death from cerebrovascular disease. Stroke 29(2):411-414.
70. Yang CY, Chang CC, Tsai SS, Chiu HF. 2006. Calcium and magnesium in drinking water and risk of death from acute myocardial infarction in Taiwan. Environ Res 101(3):407-411.