The physics and modes of star cluster formation: Simulations

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

Volumn 368, Issue 1913, 2010, Pages 733-754

  Clarke, Cathie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Hydrodynamics; Open clusters and associations: general; Stars: formation; Stars: mass function

Indexed keywords

COMPUTER SIMULATION; FLUID DYNAMICS; HYDRODYNAMICS; IONIZATION OF GASES; MAGNETIC FIELDS; THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES;

ASPHERICAL; BOUNDEDNESS; INITIAL MASS; NUMERICAL SIMULATION; OPEN CLUSTERS AND ASSOCIATIONS: GENERAL; STAR CLUSTERS; STAR FORMATIONS; STELLAR MASS; STELLAR WIND; THERMAL PROPERTIES;

STARS;

EID: 76949091246     PISSN: 1364503X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2009.0262     Document Type: Review

References (83)

1. Allison, R., Goodwin, S., Parker, R., de Grijs, R., Portegies Zwart, S. & Kouwenhoven, T. 2009 Dynamical mass segregation on a very short timescale. Astrophys. J. 700, L99-L103. (doi:10.1088/0004-637X/700/2/L99)
2. Andersen, M., Neyer, M., Greissl, J. & Aversa, A. 2008 Evidence for a turnover in the initial mass function of low-mass stars and substellar objects: analysis from an ensemble of young clusters. Astrophys. J. 683, L183-L186. (doi:10.1086/591473)
3. Bate, M. 1998 Collapse of a molecular cloud core to stellar densities: the first three-dimensional calculations. Astrophys. J. 508, L95-L98. (doi:10.1086/311719)
4. Bate, M. 2009a Stellar, brown dwarf and multiple star properties from hydrodynamical simulations of star cluster formation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 392, 590-616. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14106.x)
5. Bate, M. 2009b The importance of radiative feedback for the stellar initial mass function. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 392, 1363-1380. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14165.x)
6. Bate, M. 2009c The dependence of star formation on initial conditions and molecular cloud structure. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 397, 232-248. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14970.x)
7. Bate, M. & Bonnell, I. 2005 The origin of the initial mass function and its dependence on the mean Jeans mass in molecular clouds. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 356, 1201-1221. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08593.x)
8. Bate, M., Bonnell, I. & Price, N. 1995 Modelling accretion in protobinary systems. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 277, 362-376.
9. Bate, M., Bonnell, I. & Bromm, V. 2002 The formation mechanism of brown dwarfs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 332, L65-L68. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05539.x)
10. Bate, M., Bonnell, I. & Bromm, V. 2003 The formation of a star cluster: predicting the properties of stars and brown dwarfs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 339, 577-599. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06210.x)
11. Boily, C. & Kroupa, P. 2003 The impact of mass loss on star cluster formation. II. Numerical N-body integration and further applications. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 338, 673-686. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711. 2003.06101.x)
12. Bondi, H. & Hoyle, F. 1944 On the mechanism of accretion by stars. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 104, 273-282.
13. Bonnell, I., Clarke, C., Bate, M. & Pringle, J. 2001 Accretion in stellar clusters and the initial mass function. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 324, 573-579. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04311.x)
14. Bonnell, I., Bate, M. & Vine, S. 2003 The hierarchical formation of a stellar cluster. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 343, 413-418. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06687.x)
15. Bonnell, I., Vine, S. & Bate, M. 2004 Massive star formation: nurture, not nature. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 349, 735-741. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07543.x)
16. Bonnell, I., Clarke, C. & Bate, M. 2006 The Jeans mass and the origin of the knee in the IMF. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 368, 1296-1300. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10214.x)
17. Bonnell, I., Clark, P. & Bate, M. 2008 Gravitational fragmentation and the formation of brown dwarfs in stellar clusters. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 389, 1556-1562. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13679.x)
18. Cartwright, A. & Whitworth, A. 2004 The statistical analysis of star clusters. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 348, 589-598. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07360.x)
19. Chabrier, G. 2003 Galactic stellar and substellar initial mass function. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 115, 763-795. (doi:10.1086/376392)
20. Chapman, S., Pongracic, H., Disney, M., Nelson, A., Turner, J. & Whitworth, A. 1992 The formation of binary and multiple star systems. Nature 359, 207-210. (doi:10.1038/359207a0)
21. Clark, P. & Bonnell, I. 2004 Star formation in transient molecular clouds. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 347, L36-L40. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07377.x)
22. Clark, P., Bonnell, I. & Klessen, R. 2008 The star formation efficiency and its relation to variations in the initial mass function. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 386, 3-10. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13005. x)
23. Clarke, C. 1999 The fragmentation of cold slabs: application to the formation of clusters. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 307, 328-336. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02581.x)
24. Clarke, C. & Bromm, V. 2003 The characteristic stellar mass as a function of redshift. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 343, 1224-1230. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06765.x)
25. Dale, J. & Bonnell, I. 2008 The effect of stellar winds on the formation of a protocluster. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 391, 2-13. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13802.x)
26. Dale, J., Bonnell, I., Clarke, C. & Bate, M. 2005 Photoionizing feedback in star cluster formation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 358, 291-304. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08806.x)
27. Dale, J., Clark, P. & Bonnell, I. 2007a Ionization-induced star formation. II. External irradiation of a turbulent molecular cloud. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 377, 535-544. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007. 11515.x)
28. Dale, J., Ercolano, B. & Clarke, C. 2007b A new algorithm for modeling photoionizing radiation in smoothed particle hydrodynamics. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 382, 1759-1767. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007. 12486.x)
29. de Grijs, R. 2010 A revolution in star cluster research: setting the scene. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 368, 693-711. (doi:10.1098/rsta. 2009.0253)
30. Delgado-Donate, E., Clarke, C. & Bate, M. 2003 Accretion and dynamical interactions in small-N star forming clusters: N = 5. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 342, 926-938. (doi:10.1046/j. 1365-8711.2003.06598.x)
31. Delgado-Donate, E., Clarke, C. & Bate, M. 2004a The dependence of the substellar IMF on the initial conditions for star formation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 347, 759-770. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004. 07259.x)
32. Delgado-Donate, E., Clarke, C., Bate, M. & Hodgkin, S. 2004b On the properties of young multiple stars. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 351, 617-629. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07803.x)
33. Elmegreen, B. & Elmegreen, D. 1978 Star formation in shock-compressed layers. Astrophys. J. 220, 1051-1062. (doi:10.1086/155991)
34. Evans, N. et al. 2009. The Spitzer C2D legacy results: star-formation rates and efficiencies; evolution and lifetimes. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 181, 321-350. (doi:10.1088/0067-0049/181/2/321)
35. Geyer, M. & Burkert, A. 2001 The effect of gas loss on the formation of bound stellar clusters. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 323, 988-994. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04257.x)
36. Goodwin, S. P. 2010 Binaries in star clusters and the origin of the field stellar population. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 368, 851-866. (doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0254)
37. Goodwin, S. & Bastian, N. 2006 Gas expulsion and the destruction of massive young clusters. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 373, 752-758. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11078.x)
38. Goodwin, S., Whitworth, A. & Ward-Thompson, D. 2004a Simulating star formation in molecular cloud cores. I. The influence of low levels of turbulence on fragmentation and multiplicity. Astron. Astrophys. 414, 633-650. (doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20031594)
39. Goodwin, S., Whitworth, A. & Ward-Thompson, D. 2004b Simulating star formation in molecular cores. II. The effects of different levels of turbulence. Astron. Astrophys. 423, 169-182. (doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20040285)
40. Goodwin, S., Whitworth, A. & Ward-Thompson, D. 2006 Star formation in molecular cores. III. The effect of the turbulent power spectrum. Astron. Astrophys. 452, 487-492. (doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20054026)
41. Gritschneder, M., Naab, T., Burkert, A., Walch, S., Heitsch, F. & Wetzstein, M. 2009a iVINE: ionization in the parallel TREE/SPH code VINE: first results on the observed age spread around O-stars. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 393, 21-31. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14185.x)
42. Gritschneder, M., Naab, T., Walch, S., Burkert, A. & Heitsch, F. 2009b Driving turbulence and triggering star formation by ionizing radiation. Astrophys. J. 694, L26-L30. (doi:10.1088/0004-637X/694/ 1/L26)
43. Heyer, M. & Brunt, C. 2004 The universality of turbulence in Galactic molecular clouds. Astrophys. J. 615, L45-L48. (doi:10.1086/425978)
44. Heyer, M., Carpenter, J. & Snell, R. 2001 The equilibrium state of molecular regions in the outer galaxy. Astrophys. J. 551, 852-866. (doi:10.1086/320218)
45. Hoversten, E. & Glazebrook, K. 2008 Evidence for a nonuniversal stellar initial mass function from the integrated properties of SDSS galaxies. Astrophys. J. 675, 163-187. (doi:10.1086/524095)
46. Johnstone, D., Wilson, C. D., Moriarty-Schieven, G., Joncas, G., Smith, G., Gregersen, E. & Fich, M. 2000 Large-area mapping at 850 microns. II. Analysis of the clump distribution in the Ophiuchi molecular cloud. Astrophys. J. 545, 327-339. (doi:10.1086/317790)
47. Kessel-Deynet, O. & Burkert, A. 2000 Ionizing radiation in smoothed particle hydrodynamics. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 315, 713-721. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03451.x)
48. Kitsionas, S. et al. 2009 Algorithmic comparisons of decaying, isothermal, compressible turbulence. I. Low-resolution simulations with fixed grids. Astron. Astrophys. 508, 541-560. (doi:10.1051/0004-6361/ 200811170)
49. Klessen, R. & Burkert, A. 2000 The formation of stellar clusters: Gaussian cloud conditions. I. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 128, 287-319. (doi:10.1086/313371)
50. Klessen, R. & Burkert, A. 2001 The formation of stellar clusters: Gaussian cloud conditions. II. Astrophys. J. 549, 386-401. (doi:10.1086/319053)
51. Klessen, R., Burkert, A. & Bate, M. 1998 Fragmentation of molecular clouds: the initial phase of a stellar cluster. Astrophys. J. 501, L205-L208. (doi:10.1086/311471)
52. Kritsuk, A., Norman, M., Padoan, P. & Wagner, R. 2007 The statistics of supersonic isothermal turbulence. Astrophys. J. 665, 416-431. (doi:10.1086/519443)
53. Kroupa, P. 2002 The initial mass function of stars: evidence for uniformity in variable systems. Science 295, 82-91. (doi:10.1126/science.1067524)
54. Kroupa, P. & Weidner, C. 2003 Galactic-field initial mass functions of massive stars. Astrophys. J. 598, 1076-1078. (doi:10.1086/379105)
55. Kroupa, P., Tout, C. & Gilmore, G. 1993 The distribution of low-mass stars in the galactic disc. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 262, 545-587.
56. Krumholtz, M., Klein, R. & McKee, C. 2007 Molecular line emission from massive protostellar disks: predictions for ALMA and EVLA. Astrophys. J. 665, 478-491. (doi:10.1086/519305)
57. Lada, C. J. 2010 The physics and modes of star cluster formation: observations. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 368, 713-731. (doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0264)
58. Lada, C., Munech, A., Rathbone, J., Alves, J. & Lombardi, M. 2008 The nature of the dense core population in the Pipe Nebula: thermal cores under pressure. Astrophys. J. 672, 410-422. (doi:10.1086/523837)
59. Larson, R. 1981 Turbulence and star formation in molecular clouds. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 194, 809-826.
60. Larson, R. 2005 Thermal physics, cloud geometry and the stellar initial mass function. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 359, 211-222. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08881.x)
61. Lemaster, N. & Stone, J. 2008 Density probability distribution functions in supersonic hydrodynamic and MHD turbulence. Astrophys. J. 682, L97-L100. (doi:10.1086/590929)
62. Lubow, S. & Pringle, J. 1993 The gravitational stability of a compressed slab of gas. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 263, 701-706.
63. Maschberger, T., Clarke, C., Bonnell, I. & Kroupa, P. Submitted. The properties of star clusters in turbulent fragmentation calculations.
64. Masunuga, H. & Inutsuka, S. 2000 A radiation hydrodynamic model for protostellar collapse. II. The second collapse and the birth of a protostar. Astrophys. J. 531, 350-365. (doi:10.1086/308439)
65. Motte, F., André, P. & Neri, R. 1998 The initial conditions of star formation in the rho Ophiuchi main cloud: wide-field millimeter continuum mapping. Astron. Astrophys. 336, 150-172.
66. Muench, A., Lada, E., Lada, C. & Alves, J. 2002 The luminosity and mass function of the trapezium cluster: from B stars to the deuterium-burning limit. Astrophys. J. 573, 366-393. (doi:10.1086/340554)
67. Myers, P. C. 2008 Protostar mass due to infall and dispersal. Astrophys. J. 687, 340-353. (doi:10.1086/591664)
68. Oey, S. & Clarke, C. 2005 Statistical confirmation of a stellar upper mass limit. Astrophys. J. 620, L43-L46. (doi:10.1086/428396)
69. Offner, S., Hansen, C. & Krumholz, M. 2009 Stellar kinematics of young clusters in turbulent hydrodynamic simulations. Astrophys. J. 704, L124-L128. (doi:10.1088/0004-637X/704/2/L124)
70. Padoan, P., Nordlund, A. & Jones, B. 1997 The universality of the stellar initial mass function. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 288, 145-152.
71. Pflamm-Altenburg, J., Weidner, C. & Kroupa, P. 2009 Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 395, 394-400. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14522.x)
72. Price, D. & Bate, M. 2009 Inefficient star formation: the combined effects of magnetic fields and radiative feedback. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 398, 33-46. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14969.x)
73. Reipurth, B. & Clarke, C. 2001 The formation of brown dwarfs as ejected stellar embryos. Astron. J. 122, 432-439. (doi:10.1086/321121)
74. Salpeter, E. 1955 The luminosity function and stellar evolution. Astrophys. J. 121, 161-167. (doi:10.1086/145971)
75. Schmeja, S. & Klessen, R. 2004 Protostellar mass accretion rates from gravoturbulent fragmentation. Astron. Astrophys. 419, 405-417. (doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20034375)
76. Schmeja, S. & Klessen, R. 2006 Evolving structures of star-forming clusters. Astron. Astrophys. 449, 151-159. (doi:10.1051/0004-6361: 20054464)
77. Smith, R., Clark, P. & Bonnell, I. 2008 The structure of molecular clouds and the universality of the clump mass function. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 391, 1091-1099. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13970.x)
78. Weidner, C. & Kroupa, P. 2004 Evidence for a fundamental stellar upper mass limit from clustered star formation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 348, 187-191. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07340.x)
79. Weidner, C. & Kroupa, P. 2005 The variation of integrated star initial mass functions among galaxies. Astrophys. J. 625, 754-762. (doi:10.1086/429867)
80. Weidner, C. & Kroupa, P. 2006 The maximum stellar mass, star-cluster formation and composite stellar populations. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 365, 1333-1347. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005. 09824.x)
81. Whitehouse, S., Bate, M. & Monaghan, J. 2005 A faster algorithm for smoothed particle hydrodynamics with radiative transfer in the flux-limited diffusion approximation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 364, 1367-1377. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09683.x)
82. Whitworth, A., Boffin, H. & Francis, N. 1998 Gas cooling by dust during dynamical fragmentation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 299, 554-561. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1998.01813.x)
83. Zinnecker, H. 1982 Prediction of the protostellar mass spectrum in the Orion near-infrared cluster. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 395, 226-235. (doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1982.tb43399.x)