The past and present threat of vector-borne diseases in deployed troops

Clinical Microbiology and Infection

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 209-224

  Pages, F ^a,b   Faulde, M ^c,d   Orlandi Pradines, E ^a,b   Parola, P ^b,e  

^a INSTITUT DE RECHERCHE BIOMÉDICALE DES ARMÉES   (France)

^b AIX MARSEILLE UNIVERSITÉ   (France)

^c BUNDESWEHRZENTRALKRANKENHAUS KOBLENZ   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF BONN   (Germany)

^e HÔPITAL NORD   (France)

Author keywords

Armed conflict; Disease emergence; Review; Vector control; Vector borne diseases; War

Indexed keywords

CHLORAMPHENICOL; DOXYCYCLINE;

AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; ARMY; CHAGAS DISEASE; CHIKUNGUNYA ALPHAVIRUS; DENGUE; DISEASE CONTROL; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; ENCEPHALITIS; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; EPIDEMIC; EPIDEMIC ENCEPHALITIS; FILARIASIS; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HEALTH CARE; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; HYGIENE; IMMUNITY; INFECTION; LEISHMANIASIS; LYME DISEASE; MALARIA; MILITARY DEPLOYMENT; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MOSQUITO; OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD; PESTICIDE SPRAYING; PLAGUE; PREVENTIVE MEDICINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; Q FEVER; REVIEW; RNA VIRUS INFECTION; SEASONAL VARIATION; TICK BORNE ENCEPHALITIS; TRENCH FEVER; TULAREMIA; TYPHUS; UNITED STATES; VACCINATION; VIRUS INFECTION; YELLOW FEVER; ZOOLOGY;

ARTHROPODA;

EID: 76749158504     PISSN: 1198743X     EISSN: 14690691     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.03132.x     Document Type: Review

References (203)

1. Smallman-Raynor MR, Cliff AD. Impact of infectious diseases on war. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2004, 18:341-368.
2. Prinzing F. Epidemics resulting from wars 1916, Oxford, Clarendon Press
3. Hoeffler DF, Melton LJ. Changes in the distribution of Navy and Marine Corps casualties from World War I through the Vietnam conflict. Mil Med 1981, 146:776-779.
4. Mc Coy OR. Incidence of insect-borne diseases in US Army during World War II. Mosq News 1946, 6:214.
5. Gayer M, Legros D, Formenty P, Connolly MA. Conflict and emerging infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 2007, 13:1625-1631.
6. Morse SS. Factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 1995, 1:7-15.
7. Five most common arthropod-borne diseases among active duty service members in the US Armed Forces, 1995-1999. MSMR 2000, 6:12-16.
8. Zapor MJ, Moran KA. Infectious diseases during wartime. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2005, 18:395-399.
9. Peterson RK. Insects, disease and military history: the Napoleonic campaigns and historical perception. Am Entomol 1995, 41:147-160.
10. Sergent E, Sergent E. L'armée d'Orient délivrée du paludisme 1932, Paris, Librairie de l'académie de médecine
11. Bruce-chwatt L. Mosquitoes, malaria and war. J R Army Med Corps 1985, 131:85-99.
12. McCoy OR. Malaria and the war. Science 1944, 100:535-539.
13. Harrison M. Medicine and the culture of command: the case of malaria control in the British Army during the two World Wars. Med Hist 1996, 40:437-452.
14. Joy RJ. Malaria in American troops in the South and Southwest Pacific in World War II. Med Hist 43:192-207.
15. Blanc F. Health report of the Indochina campaign (1945-1954). Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales 1977, 70:341-364.
16. Shanks GD, Karwacki JJ. Malaria as military factor in Southeast Asia. Mil Med 1991, 156:684-686.
17. Blake RH. Malaria in the Australian Army in south Vietnam: successful use of a proguanil-dapsone combination for chemoprophylaxis of chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. Med J Aust 1973, 1:1265-1270.
18. Kotwal RS, Wenzel RB, Sterling RA, Porter WD, Jordan NN, Petruccelli BP. An outbreak of malaria in US Army Rangers returning from Afghanistan. JAMA 2005, 293:212-216.
19. Migliani R, Pages F, Josse R, Michel R, Pascal B, Baudon D. Epidémies de paludisme sur les théâtres d'opérations extérieures. Med armées 2004, 32:293-299.
20. Pascal B, Baudon D, Keundjian A. Malaria epidemic during a military-humanitarian mission in Africa. Med Trop (Mars) 1997, 57:253-255.
21. Peragallo MS, Croft AM, Kitchener SJ. Malaria during a multinational military deployment: the comparative experience of the Italian, British and Australian Armed Forces in East Timor. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2002, 96:481-482.
22. Susi B, Whitman T, Blazes DL, Burgess TH, Martin GJ, Freilich D. Rapid diagnostic test for Plasmodium falciparum in 32 Marines medically evacuated from Liberia with a febrile illness. Ann Intern Med 2005, 142:476-477.
23. Tuck JJ, Green AD, Roberts KI. A malaria outbreak following a British military deployment to Sierra Leone. J Infect 2003, 47:225-230.
24. Wallace MR, Sharp TW, Smoak B. Malaria among United States troops in Somalia. Am J Med 1996, 100:49-55.
25. Bwire R, Slootman EJ, Verhave JP, Bruins J, Docters van Leeuwen WM. Malaria anticircumsporozoite antibodies in Dutch soldiers returning from sub-Saharan Africa. Trop Med Int Health 1998, 3:66-69.
26. Ciminera P, Brundage J. Malaria in US military forces: a description of deployment exposures from 2003 through 2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007, 76:275-279.
27. Kitchener S, Nasveld P, Russell B, Elmes N. An outbreak of malaria in a forward battalion on active service in East Timor. Mil Med 2003, 168:457-459.
28. Michel R, Ollivier L, Meynard JB, Guette C, Migliani R, Boutin JP. Outbreak of malaria among policemen in French Guiana. Mil Med 2007, 172:977-981.
29. Migliani R, Josse R, Hovette P. Malaria in military personnel: the case of the Ivory Coast in 2002-2003. Med Trop (Mars) 2003, 63:282-286.
30. Newton JA, Schnepf GA, Wallace MR, Lobel HO, Kennedy CA, Oldfield EC. Malaria in US Marines returning from Somalia. JAMA 1994, 272:397-399.
31. Orlandi-Pradines E, Almeras L, Denis de Senneville L. Antibody response against saliva antigens of Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti in travellers in tropical Africa. Microbes Infect 2007, 13:1454-1462.
32. Orlandi-Pradines E, Penhoat K, Durand C. Antibody responses to several malaria pre-erythrocytic antigens as a marker of malaria exposure among travelers. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006, 74:979-985.
33. Verret C, Cabianca B, Haus-Cheymol R, Lafille JJ, Loran-Haranqui G, Spiegel A. Malaria outbreak in troops returning from French Guiana. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:1794-1795.
34. Ringwald P. Current antimalarial drugs: resistance and new strategies. Bull Acad Natl Med 2007, 191:1273-1284.
35. Spurgeon N. Medical support of the US army in Vietnam 1965-1970 1973, Department of the Army Washington, Washington, DC
36. Deller JJ, Russell PK. An analysis of fevers of unknown origin in American soldiers in Vietnam. Ann Intern Med 1967, 66:1129-1143.
37. Reiley CG, Russell PK. Observations on fevers of unknown origin in the Republic of Vietnam. Mil Med 1969, 134:36-42.
38. Berard H, Laille M. 40 cases of dengue (serotype 3) occurring in a military camp during an epidemic in New Caledonia (1989). The value of vector control. Med Trop (Mars) 1990, 50:423-428.
39. Kitchener S, Leggat PA, Brennan L, McCall B. Importation of dengue by soldiers returning from East Timor to north Queensland, Australia. J Travel Med 2002, 9:180-183.
40. Meynard JB, Ollivier-Gay L, Deparis X. Epidemiologic surveillance of dengue fever in the French army from 1996 to 1999. Med Trop (Mars) 2001, 61:481-486.
41. Peragallo MS, Nicoletti L, Lista F, D'Amelio R. Probable dengue virus infection among Italian troops, East Timor, 1999-2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2003, 9:876-880.
42. Sharp TW, Wallace MR, Hayes CG. Dengue fever in US troops during Operation Restore Hope, Somalia, 1992-1993. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1995, 53:89-94.
43. Pages F, Peyrefitte CN, Mve MT. Aedes albopictus mosquito: the main vector of the 2007 Chikungunya outbreak in Gabon. PLoS ONE 2009, 4:e4691.
44. Peyrefitte CN, Bessaud M, Pastorino BA. Circulation of Chikungunya virus in Gabon, 2006-2007. J Med Virol 2008, 80:430-433.
45. Peyrefitte CN, Rousset D, Pastorino BA. Chikungunya virus, Cameroon, 2006. Emerg Infect Dis 2007, 13:768-771.
46. De Lamballerie X, Leroy E, Charrel RN, Ttsetsarkin K, Higgs S, Gould EA. Chikungunya virus adapts to tiger mosquito via evolutionary convergence: a sign of things to come? Virol J 2008, 5:33.
47. Vazeille M, Moutailler S, Coudrier D. Two Chikungunya isolates from the outbreak of La Reunion (Indian Ocean) exhibit different patterns of infection in the mosquito, Aedes albopictus. PLoS ONE 2007, 2:e1168.
48. Queyriaux B, Simon F, Grandadam M, Michel R, Tolou H, Boutin JP. Clinical burden of chikungunya virus infection. Lancet Infect Dis 2008, 8:2-3.
49. Simon F, Parola P, Grandadam M. Chikungunya infection: an emerging rheumatism among travelers returned from Indian Ocean islands. Report of 47 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 2007, 86:123-137.
50. Simon F, Paule P, Oliver M. Chikungunya virus-induced myopericarditis: toward an increase of dilated cardiomyopathy in countries with epidemics? Am J Trop Med Hyg 2008, 78:212-213.
51. Rezza G, Nicoletti L, Angelini R. Infection with chikungunya virus in Italy: an outbreak in a temperate region. Lancet 2007, 370:1840-1846.
52. Bessaud M, Peyrefitte CN, Pastorino BA. O'nyong-nyong Virus, Chad. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:1248-1250.
53. Durand JP, Bouloy M, Richecoeur L, Peyrefitte CN, Tolou H. Rift Valley fever virus infection among French troops in Chad. Emerg Infect Dis 2003, 9:751-752.
54. Mathiot CC, Grimaud G, Garry P. An outbreak of human Semliki Forest virus infections in Central African Republic. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1990, 42:386-393.
55. Dreyer G, Noroes J, Figueredo-Silva J, Piessens WF. Pathogenesis of lymphatic disease in bancroftian filariasis: a clinical perspective. Parasitol Today 2000, 16:544-548.
56. Leggat PA, Melrose W. Lymphatic filariasis: disease outbreaks in military deployments from World War II. Mil Med 2005, 170:585-589.
57. Galliard H. Outbreak of filariasis (Wuchereria malayi) among French and North African servicemen in North Vietnam. Bull World Health Organ 1957, 16:601-608.
58. Colwell EJ, Armstrong DR, Brown JD, Duxbury RE, Sadun EH, Legters LJ. Epidemiologic and serologic investigations of filariasis in indigenous populations and American soldiers in South Vietnam. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1970, 19:227-231.
59. Frances SP, Baade LM, Kubofcik J. Seroconversion to filarial antigens in Australian defence force personnel in Timor-Leste. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2008, 78:560-563.
60. Tesh RB. The epidemiology of Phlebotomus (sandfly) fever. Isr J Med Sci 1989, 25:214-217.
61. Oldfield EC, Wallace MR, Hyams KC, Yousif AA, Lewis DE, Bourgeois AL. Endemic infectious diseases of the Middle East. Rev Infect Dis 1991, 13(suppl 3):S199-S217.
62. Sabin AB. Experimental studies on Phlebotomus (pappataci, sandfly) fever during World War II. Arch Gesamte Virusforsch 1951, 4:367-410.
63. Eitrem R, Vene S, Niklasson B. Incidence of sand fly fever among Swedish United Nations soldiers on Cyprus during 1985. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1990, 43:207-211.
64. Konstantinou GN, Papa A, Antoniadis A. Sandfly-fever outbreak in Cyprus: are phleboviruses still a health problem? Travel Med Infect Dis 2007, 5:239-242.
65. Nikolaev VP, Perepelkin VS, Raevskii KK, Prusakova ZM. A natural focus of sandfly fever in the Republic of Afghanistan. Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol 1991, 3:39-41.
66. Coleman RE, Burkett DA, Putnam JL. Impact of phlebotomine sand flies on US military operations at Tallil Air Base, Iraq: 1. Background, military situation, and development of a 'Leishmaniasis Control Program'. J Med Entomol 2006, 43:647-662.
67. Ellis SB, Appenzeller G, Lee H. Outbreak of sandfly fever in central Iraq, September 2007. Mil Med 2008, 173:949-953.
68. Jumaian N, Kamhawi SA, Halalsheh M, Abdel-Hafez SK. Short report: outbreak of cutaneous leishmaniasis in a nonimmune population of soldiers in Wadi Araba, Jordan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998, 58:160-162.
69. Martin S, Gambel J, Jackson J. Leishmaniasis in the United States military. Mil Med 1998, 163:801-807.
70. Myles O, Wortmann GW, Cummings JF. Visceral leishmaniasis: clinical observations in 4 US army soldiers deployed to Afghanistan or Iraq, 2002-2004. Arch Intern Med 2007, 167:1899-1901.
71. Korzeniewski K, Olszanski R. Leishmaniasis among soldiers of stabilization forces in Iraq. Int Marit Health 2004, 4:155-163.
72. Leishmaniosegefahr in Afghanistan: Prävention in Mazar-e Sharif ist dringend erforderlich. Die Bundeswehr 2006, 1:9-10.
73. Faulde M. Emergence of vector-borne diseases during war and conflicts. Med Corps Int 2006, 26:4-14.
74. Faulde MK, Heyl G, Amirih ML. Zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis, Afghanistan. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:1623-1624.
75. Pernod J, Ferrand M, Roumagnac H. Kala-azar among the troops stationed in Algeria. Bull Mem Soc Med Hop Paris 1960, 76:1206-1216.
76. Reportable medical events, active components, US Armed Forces, 2006. MSMR 2007, 14:23-28.
77. Berger F, Romary P, Brachet D. Outbreak of cutaneous leishmaniasis in military population coming back from French Guiana. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 2006, 54:213-221.
78. Takafuji ET, Hendricks LD, Daubek JL, McNeil KM, Scagliola HM, Diggs CL. Cutaneous leishmaniasis associated with jungle training. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1980, 29:516-520.
79. Walton BC, Person DA, Bernstein R. Leishmaniasis in the US military in the Canal Zone. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1968, 17:19-24.
80. Stromdahl EY, Evans SR, O'Brien JJ, Gutierrez AG. Prevalence of infection in ticks submitted to the human tick test kit program of the US Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine. J Med Entomol 2001, 38:67-74.
81. Wicki R, Sauter P, Mettler C. Swiss Army Survey in Switzerland to determine the prevalence of Francisella tularensis, members of the Ehrlichia phagocytophila genogroup, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, and tick-borne encephalitis virus in ticks. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000, 19:427-432.
82. Oksi J, Viljanen MK. Tick bites, clinical symptoms of Lyme borreliosis, and Borrelia antibody responses in Finnish army recruits training in an endemic region during summer. Mil Med 1995, 160:453-456.
83. Fournier PE, Durand JP, Rolain JM, Camicas JL, Tolou H, Raoult D. Detection of Astrakhan fever rickettsia from ticks in Kosovo. Ann NY Acad Sci 2003, 990:158-161.
84. Tissot-Dupont H, Raoult D. Q fever. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2008, 22:505-514.
85. Boui M, Errami E. Tularaemia outbreak in Kosovo. Ann Dermatol Venereol 2007, 134:839-842.
86. Grunow R, Finke EJ. A procedure for differentiating between the intentional release of biological warfare agents and natural outbreaks of disease: its use in analysing the tularemia outbreak in Kosovo in 1999 and 2000. Clin Microbiol Infect 2002, 8:510-521.
87. Gern L. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the agent of lyme borreliosis: life in the wilds. Parasite 2008, 15:244-247.
88. Stanek G, Strle F. Lyme borreliosis. Lancet 2003, 362:1639-1647.
89. Schmutzhard E, Stanek G, Pletschette M. Infections following tickbites. Tick-borne encephalitis and Lyme borreliosis--a prospective epidemiological study from Tyrol. Infection 1988, 16:269-272.
90. Vos K, Van Dam AP, Kuiper H, Bruins H, Spanjaard L, Dankert J. Seroconversion for Lyme borreliosis among Dutch military. Scand J Infect Dis 1994, 26:427-434.
91. Baker BC, Croft AM, Crwinfield CR. Hospitalisation due to Lyme disease: case series in British Forces Germany. J R Army Med Corps 2004, 150:182-186.
92. Welker RD, Narby GM, Legare EJ, Sweeney DM. Lyme disease acquired in Europe and presenting in CONUS. Mil Med 1993, 158:684-685.
93. Dworkin MS, Schwan TG, Anderson DE, Borchardt SM. Tick-borne relapsing fever. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2008, 22:449-468. Viii
94. Vial L, Diatta G, Tall A. Incidence of tick-borne relapsing fever in West Africa: longitudinal study. Lancet 2006, 368:37-43.
95. Parola P, Raoult D. Tropical rickettsioses. Clin Dermatol 2006, 24:191-200.
96. Sanchez JL, Candler WH, Fishbein DB. A cluster of tick-borne infections: association with military training and asymptomatic infections due to Rickettsia rickettsii. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1992, 86:321-325.
97. Radulovic S, Walker DH, Weiss K, Dzelalija B, Morovic M. Prevalence of antibodies to spotted fever group rickettsiae along the eastern coast of the Adriatic sea. J Clin Microbiol 1993, 31:2225-2227.
98. Jensenius M, Fournier PE, Vene S. African tick bite fever in travelers to rural sub-Equatorial Africa. Clin Infect Dis 2003, 36:1411-1417.
99. Stephenson R. Rickettsia in the regiment. J R Army Med Corps 1989, 135:21-24.
100. Smoak BL, McClain JB, Brundage JF. An outbreak of spotted fever rickettsiosis in US Army troops deployed to Botswana. Emerg Infect Dis 1996, 2:217-221.
101. Stromdahl EY, Vince MA, Billingsley PM, Dobbs NA, Williamson PC. Rickettsia amblyommii infecting Amblyomma americanum larvae. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008, 8:15-24.
102. Anigstein L, Anigstein D. A review of the evidence in retrospect for a rickettsial etiology in Bullis fever. Tex Rep Biol Med 1975, 33:201-211.
103. Goddard J. Was Bullis fever actually ehrlichiosis? JAMA 1988, 260:3006-3007.
104. Murray CK, Dooley DP. Bullis fever: a vanished infection of unknown etiology. Mil Med 2004, 169:863-865.
105. Woodland JC, Richards JT. Bullis fever (lone star fever, tick fever). JAMA 1943, 122:1156-1160.
106. Walker DH, Paddock CD, Dumler JS. Emerging and re-emerging tick-transmitted rickettsial and ehrlichial infections. Med Clin North Am 2008, 92:1345-1361.
107. Petersen LR, Sawyer LA, Fishbein DB. An outbreak of ehrlichiosis in members of an Army Reserve unit exposed to ticks. J Infect Dis 1989, 159:562-568.
108. Yevich SJ, Sanchez JL, DeFraites RF. Seroepidemiology of infections due to spotted fever group rickettsiae and Ehrlichia species in military personnel exposed in areas of the United States where such infections are endemic. J Infect Dis 1995, 171:1266-1273.
109. Davoust B, Keundjian A, Rous V, Maurizi L, Parzy D. Validation of chemoprevention of canine monocytic ehrlichiosis with doxycycline. Vet Microbiol 2005, 4:279-283.
110. Calisher CH, Goodpasture HC. Human infection with Bhanja virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1975, 1:1040-1042.
111. Hoogstraal H. The epidemiology of tick-borne Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever in Asia, Europe, and Africa. J Med Entomol 1979, 15:307-417.
112. Khan AS, Maupin GO, Rollin PE. An outbreak of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever in the United Arab Emirates, 1994-1995. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1997, 57:519-525.
113. Burney MI, Ghafoor A, Saleen M, Webb PA, Casals J. Nosocomial outbreak of viral hemorrhagic fever caused by Crimean hemorrhagic fever-Congo virus in Pakistan, January 1976. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1980, 29:941-947.
114. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) in Kosovo: update 5 2001, Geneva, World Health Organization
115. Frangoulidis D, Meyer H. Measures undertaken in the German Armed Forces Field Hospital deployed in Kosovo to contain a potential outbreak of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever. Mil Med 2005, 170:366-369.
116. Krim-Kongo-Fieber: zu einem ausbruch in der provinz Herat, Afghanistan. Epid Bull 2008, 448-450.
117. Crimean-Congo hem. fever fatal--Germany ex Afghanistan. ProMed-mail 2009; 19 September 2009
118. Charrel RN, De Lamballerie X. The Alkhurma virus (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus): an emerging pathogen responsible for hemorrhage fever in the Middle East. Med Trop (Mars) 2003, 63:296-299.
119. Bitam I, Dittmar K, Parola P, Whiting MF, Raoult D. Fleas and flea born diseases. Int J Infect Dis 2009
120. Stenseth NC, Atshabar BB, Begon M. Plague: past, present, and future. PLoS Med 2008, 5:e3.
121. Civen R, Ngo V. Murine typhus: an unrecognized suburban vectorborne disease. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46:913-918.
122. Mafart B, Brisou P, Bertherat E. Plague outbreaks in the Mediterranean area during the 2nd World War, epidemiology and treatments. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2004, 97:306-310.
123. Velimirovic B. Plague in South-East Asia. A brief historical summary and present geographical distribution. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1972, 66:479-504.
124. Greenberg JH. Public health problems relating to the Vietnam returnee. JAMA 1969, 207:697-702.
125. Outbreak news. Plague, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2006, 81:397-398.
126. Bertherat E, Lamine KM, Formenty P. Major pulmonary plague outbreak in a mining camp in the Democratic Republic of Congo: brutal awakening of an old scourge. Med Trop (Mars) 2005, 65:511-514.
127. Kelly DJ, Richards AL, Temenak J, Strickman D, Dasch GA. The past and present threat of rickettsial diseases to military medicine and international public health. Clin Infect Dis 2002, 34(suppl 4):S145-S169.
128. Miller MB, Blankenship R, Bratton JL, Lohr DC, Hunt J, Reynolds RD. Murine typhus in Vietnam. Mil Med 1974, 139:184-186.
129. Hazlett DR. Scrub typhus in Vietnam: experience at the 8th Field Hospital. Mil Med 1970, 135:31-34.
130. Olson JG, Bourgeois AL, Fang RC, Coolbaugh JC, Dennis DT. Prevention of scrub typhus. Prophylactic administration of doxycycline in a randomized double blind trial. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1980, 29:989-997.
131. Philip CB, Traub R, Smadel JE. Chloramphenicol in the chemoprophylaxis of scrub typhus; epidemiological observations on hyperendemic areas of scrub typhus in Malaya. Am J Hyg 1949, 50:63-74.
132. Corwin A, Soderquist R, Suwanabun N. Scrub typhus and military operations in Indochina. Clin Infect Dis 1999, 29:940-941.
133. Rosenberg R. Drug-resistant scrub typhus: paradigm and paradox. Parasitol Today 1997, 13:131-132.
134. Eamsila C, Singsawat P, Duangvaraporn A, Strickman D. Antibodies to Orientia tsutsugamushi in Thai soldiers. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996, 55:556-559.
135. Chattopadhyay S, Richards AL. Scrub typhus vaccines: past history and recent developments. Hum Vaccin 2007, 3:73-80.
136. Kennedy PG. The continuing problem of human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Ann Neurol 2008, 64:116-126.
137. Berrang Ford L. Civil conflict and sleeping sickness in Africa in general and Uganda in particular. Confl Health 2007, 1:6.
138. Crum NF, Aronson NE, Lederman ER, Rusnak JM, Cross JH. History of US military contributions to the study of parasitic diseases. Mil Med 2005, 4(suppl):17-29.
139. Sonne W. History of the onset and spread of sleeping sickness in Bipindi (southern Cameroon), from 1896 to today. Med Trop (Mars) 2001, 5:384-389.
140. Galvao C, Carcavallo R, Rocha DS, Jurberg J. A checklist of the current valid species of the subfamily Triatominae Jeannel, 1919 (Hemiptera, Reduviidae) and their geographical distribution, with nomenclatural and taxonomic notes. Zootaxa 2003, 202:1-36.
141. Aguilar HM, Abad-Franch F, Dias JC, Junqueira AC, Coura JR. Chagas disease in the Amazon region. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2007, 102(suppl 1):47-56.
142. Croft AM, Baker D, Von Bertele MJ. An evidence-based vector control strategy for military deployments: the British Army experience. Med Trop (Mars) 2001, 61:91-98.
143. Pages F. Vector control for armed forces: a historical requirement requiring continual adaptation. Med Trop (Mars) 2009, 69:165-172.
144. Robert LL. Malaria prevention and control in the United States military. Med Trop (Mars) 2001, 61:67-76.
145. Britch SC, Linthicum KJ, Anyamba A. Satellite vegetation index data as a tool to forecast population dynamics of medically important mosquitoes at military installations in the continental United States. Mil Med 2008, 173:677-683.
146. Machault V, Orlandi-Pradines E, Michel R. Remote sensing and malaria risk for military personnel in Africa. J Travel Med 2008, 15:216-220.
147. Robert JTJ. Malaria in American troops in the south and southwest Pacific in World War II. Med Hist 1999, 43:192-207.
148. Asilian A, Sadeghinia A, Shariati F, Imam Jome M, Ghoddusi A. Efficacy of permethrin-impregnated uniforms in the prevention of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iranian soldiers. J Clin Pharm Ther 2003, 28:175-178.
149. Ho-Pun-Cheung T, Lamarque D, Josse R. Protective effect of clothing impregnated with permethrin against D. reticulatus and D. marginatus in an open biotope of central western France. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1999, 92:337-340.
150. Miller RJ, Wing J, Cope SE, Klavons JA, Kline DL. Repellency of permethrin-treated battle-dress uniforms during Operation Tandem Thrust 2001. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 2004, 20:462-464.
151. Soto J, Medina F, Dember N, Berman J. Efficacy of permethrin-impregnated uniforms in the prevention of malaria and leishmaniasis in Colombian soldiers. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 21:599-602.
152. Young GD, Evans S. Safety and efficacy of DEET and permethrin in the prevention of arthropod attack. Mil Med 1998, 163:324-330.
153. Deparis X, Frere B, Lamizana M. Efficacy of permethrin-treated uniforms in combination with DEET topical repellent for protection of French military troops in Cote d'Ivoire. J Med Entomol 2004, 41:914-921.
154. Faulde MK, Uedelhoven WM, Malerius M, Robbins RG. Factory-based permethrin impregnation of uniforms: residual activity against Aedes aegypti and Ixodes ricinus in battle dress uniforms worn under field conditions, and cross-contamination during the laundering and storage process. Mil Med 2006, 171:472-477.
155. Frances SP. Evaluation of bifenthrin and permethrin as barrier treatments for military tents against mosquitoes in Queensland, Australia. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 2007, 23:208-212.
156. Graham K, Mohammad N, Rehman H. Insecticide-treated plastic tarpaulins for control of malaria vectors in refugee camps. Med Vet Entomol 2002, 16:404-408.
157. Coleman RE, Hochberg LP, Putnam JL. Use of vector diagnostics during military deployments: recent experience in Iraq and Afghanistan. Mil Med 2009, 174:904-920.
158. Hanafi HA, Fryauff DJ, Modi GB, Ibrahim MO, Main AJ. Bionomics of phlebotomine sandflies at a peacekeeping duty site in the north of Sinai, Egypt. Acta Trop 2007, 101:106-114.
159. Orlandi-Pradines E, Rogier C, Koffi B. Major variations in malaria exposure of travellers in rural areas: an entomological cohort study in western Cote d'Ivoire. Malar J 2009, 8:171.
160. Faulde MK, Hoffmann R, Fazilat KM, Hoerauf A. Malaria reemergence in northern Afghanistan. Emerg Infect Dis 2007, 13:1402-1404.
161. Girod R, Orlandi-Pradines E, Rogier C, Pages F. Malaria transmission and insecticide resistance of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) in the French military camp of Port-Bouet, Abidjan (Cote d'Ivoire): implications for vector control. J Med Entomol 2006, 43:1082-1087.
162. Pages F, Texier G, Pradines B. Malaria transmission in Dakar: a two-year survey. Malar J 2008, 7:178.
163. Faulde M, Schrader J, Heyl G, Amirih M. Differences in transmission seasons as an epidemiological tool for characterization of anthroponotic and zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in northern Afghanistan. Acta Trop 2008, 105:131-138.
164. Harrus S, Baneth G. Drivers for the emergence and re-emergence of vector-borne protozoal and bacterial diseases. Int J Parasitol 2005, 12:1309-1318.
165. Martens P, Hall L. Malaria on the move: human population movement and malaria transmission. Emerg Infect Dis 2000, 6:103-109.
166. Trypanosomiasis re-emerges under cover of war. Afr Health 1997, 19:3.
167. Baomar A, Mohamed A. Malaria outbreak in a malaria-free region in Oman 1998: unknown impact of civil war in Africa. Public Health 2000, 114:480-483.
168. Beyrer C, Villar JC, Suwanvanichkij V, Singh S, Baral SD, Mills EJ. Neglected diseases, civil conflicts, and the right to health. Lancet 2007, 370:619-627.
169. Jassim AK, Maktoof R, Ali H, Budosan B, Campbell K. Visceral leishmaniasis control in Thi Qar Governorate, Iraq, 2003. East Mediterr Health J 2006, 12(suppl 2):S230-S237.
170. Rowland M, Rab MA, Freeman T, Durrani N, Rehman N. Afghan refugees and the temporal and spatial distribution of malaria in Pakistan. Soc Sci Med 2002, 55:2061-2072.
171. Seaman J, Mercer AJ, Sondorp E. The epidemic of visceral leishmaniasis in western Upper Nile, southern Sudan: course and impact from 1984 to 1994. Int J Epidemiol 1996, 25:862-871.
172. Spiegel PB, Le P, Ververs MT, Salama P. Occurrence and overlap of natural disasters, complex emergencies and epidemics during the past decade (1995-2004). Confl Health 2007, 1:2.
173. Boussery G, Boelaert M, Van Peteghem J, Ejikon P, Henckaerts K. Visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar) outbreak in Somali refugees and Kenyan shepherds, Kenya. Emerg Infect Dis 2001, 3(suppl):603-604.
174. Duffy PE, Le Guillouzic H, Gass RF, Innis BL. Murine typhus identified as a major cause of febrile illness in a camp for displaced Khmers in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1990, 43:520-526.
175. Saeed IE, Ahmed ES. Determinants of acquiring malaria among displaced people in Khartoum state, Sudan. East Mediterr Health J 2003, 9:581-592.
176. Djourichitch M. Character of the great typhus epidemic of the Spring and Summer of 1942 among refugees on the Drina River in Yugoslavia. Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales 1953, 46:286-287.
177. Kolaczinski J, Brooker S, Reyburn H, Rowland M. Epidemiology of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in Afghan refugee camps in northwest Pakistan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2004, 98:373-378.
178. Richards AK, Smith L, Mullany LC. Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum in active conflict areas of eastern Burma: a summary of cross-sectional data. Confl Health 2007, 1:9.
179. Sundnes KO, Haimanot AT. Epidemic of louse-borne relapsing fever in Ethiopia. Lancet 1993, 342:1213-1215.
180. Suwanvanichkij V. Displacement and disease: the Shan exodus and infectious disease implications for Thailand. Confl Health 2008, 2:4.
181. Wilde H, Pornsilapatip J, Sokly T, Thee S. Murine and scrub typhus at Thai-Kampuchean border displaced persons camps. Trop Geogr Med 1991, 43:363-369.
182. Garfield RM, Frieden T, Vermund SH. Health-related outcomes of war in Nicaragua. Am J Public Health 1987, 77:615-618.
183. Moore A, Richer M, Enrile M, Losio E, Roberts J, Levy D. Resurgence of sleeping sickness in Tambura County, Sudan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999, 61:315-318.
184. Niyongabo T, Ndayiragije A, Larouze B, Aubry P. Burundi: impact of 10 years of civil war on endemic and epidemic diseases. Med Trop (Mars) 2005, 65:305-312.
185. Ghobarah HA, Huth P, Russett B. The post-war public health effects of civil conflict. Soc Sci Med 2004, 59:869-884.
186. Utzinger J, Weiss MG. Editorial: armed conflict, war and public health. Trop Med Int Health 2007, 12:903-906.
187. Atenstaedt RL. The response to the trench diseases in World War I: a triumph of public health science. Public Health 2007, 121:634-639.
188. Gilliam GG. Efficacy of Cox-type vaccine in the prevention of naturally acquired louse-borne typhus fever. Am J Hyg 1946, 44:401.
189. Zarafonetis CJD. The typhus fever. United States Army in World War II, The Medical Department: medical service in the Mediterranean and minor theaters 1965, 143-223. Wiltse CM. In, ed, Washington, DC, Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army
190. Richards AL, Malone JD, Sheris S. Arbovirus and rickettsial infections among combat troops during Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm. J Infect Dis 1993, 168:1080-1081.
191. Niang M, Brouqui P, Raoult D. Epidemic typhus imported from Algeria. Emerg Infect Dis 1999, 5:716-718.
192. Raoult D, Ndihokubwayo JB, Tissot-Dupont H. Outbreak of epidemic typhus associated with trench fever in Burundi. Lancet 1998, 352:353-358.
193. Raoult D, Roux V, Ndihokubwayo JB. Jail fever (epidemic typhus) outbreak in Burundi. Emerg Infect Dis 1997, 3:357-360.
194. Sezi CL, Nnochiri E, Nsanzumuhire E, Buttner D. A small outbreak of louse typhus in Masaka District, Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1972, 66:783-788.
195. Bryceson AD, Parry EH, Perine PL, Warrell DA, Vukotich D, Leithead CS. Louse-borne relapsing fever. Q J Med 1970, 39:129-170.
196. Anderson TR, Zimmerman LE. Relapsing fever in Korea; a clinicopathologic study of eleven fatal cases with special attention to association with Salmonella infections. Am J Pathol 1955, 31:1083-1109.
197. Sanchez JL, Craig SC, Kohlhase K, Polyak C, Ludwig SL, Rumm PD. Health assessment of US military personnel deployed to Bosnia-Herzegovina for Operation Joint Endeavor. Mil Med 2001, 166:470-474.
198. Craig SC, Pittman PR, Lewis TE. An accelerated schedule for tick-borne encephalitis vaccine: the American Military experience in Bosnia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999, 61:874-878.
199. Anderson AD, Smoak B, Shuping E, Ockenhouse C, Petruccelli B. Q fever and the US military. Emerg Infect Dis 2005, 11:1320-1322.
200. Faas A, Engeler A, Zimmermann A, Zoller L. Outbreak of Query fever among Argentinean special police unit officers during a United Nations mission in Prizren, South Kosovo. Mil Med 2007, 172:1103-1106.
201. Robbins FC, Gauld RL, Warner FB. Q fever in the Mediterranean area: report of its occurrence in Allied troops. II. Epidemiology. Am J Hyg 1946, 44:23-50.
202. Splino M, Beran J, Chlibek R. Q fever outbreak during the Czech Army deployment in Bosnia. Mil Med 2003, 168:840-842.
203. Sjostedt A. Tularemia: history, epidemiology, pathogen physiology, and clinical manifestations. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007, 1105:1-29.