Smoking and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: Part III: Functional biomarkers influenced by smoking

Biomarkers in Medicine

Volumn 3, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 807-823

  Winkelmann, Bernhard R ^a,b   Von Holt, Klaus ^c   Unverdorben, Martin ^d  

^a ClinPhenomics GmbH   (Germany)

^b Cardiology Group Frankfurt Sachsenhausen   (Germany)

^c Center for Cardiovascular Diseases ^*

^d Center for Cardiovascular Diseases   (Germany)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Biomarker; Cardiovascular disease; Cigarette smoking

Indexed keywords

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHRONOTROPISM; CIGARETTE SMOKING; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE FUNCTION; HEART RATE VARIABILITY; HUMAN; PARASYMPATHETIC FUNCTION; PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE; PROGNOSIS; QT INTERVAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING CESSATION; SYMPATHETIC FUNCTION;

EID: 75149148268     PISSN: 17520363     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/bmm.09.69     Document Type: Review

References (308)

1. Winkelmann BR, von Holt K, Unverdorben M: Smoking and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: part I: atherosclerotic disease process. Biomarkers Med. 3(4), 411-428 (2009).
2. Unverdorben M, von Holt K, Winkelmann BR: Smoking and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: part II: role of cigarette smoking in cardiovascular disease development. Biomarkers Med. 3(5), 617-653 (2009).
3. Kannel W: Contributions of the Framingham study to the conquest of coronary artery disease. Am. J. Cardiol. 62, 1109-1112 (1988).
4. Bradford Hill A: The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc. R. Soc. Med. 58, 295-300 (1965).
5. Tsuji H, Venditti FJ, Manders E et al.: Determinants of heart rate variability. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 15, 1539-1546 (1996).
6. Cygankiewicz I, Wranicz J, Bolinska H, Zaslonka J, Jaszewski R, Zareba W: Prognostic significance of heart rate turbulence in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting. Am. J. Cardiol. 91, 1471-1474 (2003).
7. Elming H, Holm E, Jun L et al.: The prognostic value of the QT interval and QT interval dispersion in all-cause and cardiac mortality and morbidity in a population of danish citizens. Eur. Heart J. 19, 1391-1400 (1998).
8. Linnemann B, Janka H: Prolonged QTc interval and elevated heart rate identify the Type 2 diabetic patient at high risk for cardiovascular death. The Bremen Diabetes Study. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes 111, 215-222 (2003).
9. Karjalainen J, Reunanen A, Ristola P, Viitasalo MT: QT interval as a cardiac risk factor in a middle aged population. Heart 77, 543-548 (1997).
10. Crow R, Hannan P, Folsom A: Prognostic significance of corrected QT and corrected JT interval for incident coronary heart disease in a general population sample stratified by presence or absence of wide QRS complex: the ARIC Study with 13 years of follow-up. Circulation 108, 1985-1989 (2003).
11. Schouten E, Dekker J, Meppelink P et al.: QT interval prolongation predicts cardiovascular mortality in an apparently healthy population. Circulation 84, 1516-1523 (1991).
12. Perkiomaki J, Sourander L, Levomaki L, Raiha I, Puukka P, Huikuri H: QT dispersion and mortality in the elderly. Ann. Noninvasive Electrocardiol. 6, 183-192 (2001).
13. Gemici K, Baran I, Gullulu S, Kazazoglu A, Cordan J, Ozer Z: Evaluation of diastolic dysfunction and repolarization dispersion in behcet's disease. Int. J. Cardiol. 28, 143-148 (2000).
14. Day C, McComb J, Campbell R: QT dispersion: an indication of arrhythmia risk in patients with long QT intervals. Br. Heart J. 63, 342-344 (2002).
15. Hughson WG, Mann JI, Garrod A: Intermittent claudication: prevalence and risk factors. Br. Med. J. 1, 1379-1381 (1978).
16. Alderman MH: A new model of risk: implications of increasing pulse pressure and systolic blood pressure on cardiovascular disease. J. Hypertens 17(Suppl. 5), S25-S28 (1999).
17. Tell GS, Fried LP, Hermanson B, Manolio TA, Newman AB, Borhani NO: Recruitment of adults 65 years and older as participants in the cardiovascular health study. Ann. Epidemiol. 3, 358-366 (1993).
18. Aurigemma GP, Gottdiener JS, Shemanski L, Gardin J, Kitzman D: Predictive value of systolic and diastolic function for incident congestive heart failure in the elderly: the cardiovascular health study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 37, 1042-1048 (2001).
19. Fish R, Nabel E, Selwyn A et al.: Response of coronary arteries of cardiac transplant patients to acetylcholine. J. Clin. Invest. 81, 21-31 (1988).
20. Ross R: Atherosclerosis - an inflammatory disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 115-126 (1999).
21. Szmitko PE, Wang CH, Weisel RD, Jeffries GA, Anderson TJ, Verma S: Biomarkers of vascular disease linking inflammation to endothelial activation: part II. Circulation 108, 2041-2048 (2003).
22. Szmitko P, Wang C, Weisel R, de Ameida J, Anderson T, Verma S: New markers of inflammation and endothelial cell activation: part I. Circulation 108, 1917-1923 (2003).
23. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM et al.: Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 340, 1111-1115 (1992).
24. Celermajer DS, Adams MR, Clarkson P et al.: Passive smoking and impaired endothelium-dependent arterial dilatation in healthy young adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 334, 150-154 (1996).
25. Badimon JJ, Fuster V, Chesebro JH, Badimon L: Coronary atherosclerosis. A multifactorial disease. Circulation 87, II3-II16 (1993).
26. Davignon J: The lipid hypothesis. Pathophysiological basis. Arch. Surg. 113, 28-34 (1978).
27. Berliner J, Navab M, Fogelman A et al.: Atherosclerosis: basic mechanisms. Oxidation, inflammation, and genetics. Circulation 91, 2488-2496 (1995).
28. Deanfield JE, Halcox JP, Rabelink TJ: Endothelial function and dysfunction: testing and clinical relevance. Circulation 115, 1285-1295 (2007).
29. Unverdorben M, der Bijl A, Potgieter L, Liang Q, Meyer BH, Roethig HJ: Spiroergometry in adult smokers comparing a conventional cigarette to an electrically heated cigarette smoking system. Prev. Cardiol. 10, 83-91 (2007).
30. Kyriakides ZS, Kremastinos DT, Rentoukas E, Mavrogheni S, Kremastinos DI, Toutouzas P: Acute effects of cigarette smoking on left ventricular diastolic function. Eur. Heart J. 13, 743-748 (1992).
31. Alam M, Samad BA, Wardell J, Andersson E, Hoglund C, Nordlander R: Acute effects of smoking on diastolic function in healthy participants: studies by conventional Doppler echocardiography and Doppler tissue imaging. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 15, 1232-1237 (2002).
32. Stork T, Danne O, Muller R, Mockel M, Hochrein H: Effect of smoking on relaxation and filling behavior of the left ventricle in healthy probands. An echocardiography study. Med. Klin. 86, 173-179 (1991).
33. Stork T, Eichstadt H, Mockel M, Bortfeldt R, Muller R, Hochrein H: Changes of diastolic function induced by cigarette smoking: An echocardiographic study in patients with coronary artery disease. Clin. Cardiol. 15, 80-86 (1992).
34. Cryer PE, Haymond MW, Santiago JV, Shah SD: Norepinephrine and epinephrine release and adrenergic mediation of smoking-associated hemodynamic and metabolic events. N. Engl. J. Med. 295, 573-577 (1976).
35. Koch A, Hoffmann K, Steck W et al.: Acute cardiovascular reactions after cigarette smoking. Atherosclerosis 35, 67-75 (1980).
36. Lekakis J, Papamichael C, Vemmos C et al.: Effect of acute cigarette smoking on endothelium-dependent brachial artery dilatation in healthy individuals. Am. J. Cardiol. 79, 529-531 (1997).
37. Spohr U, Hofmann K, Steck W et al.: Evaluation of smoking-induced effects on sympathetic, hemodynamic and metabolic variables with respect to plasma nicotine and COHb levels. Atherosclerosis 33, 271-283 (1979).
38. Heitzer T, Meinertz T: Prevention of coronary heart disease: smoking. Z. Kardiol. 94(Suppl. 3), III30-III42 (2005).
39. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology: Heart rate variability: standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Task force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Circulation 93, 1043-1065 (1996).
40. Levy S, Guize L: Heart rate, a major prognostic factor of cardiovascular risk. Therapie 61, 115-119 (2006).
41. Sandvik L, Erikssen J, Thaulow E, Erikssen G, Mundal R, Rodahl K: Physical fitness as a predictor of mortality among healthy, middle-aged Norwegian men. N. Engl. J. Med. 328, 533-537 (1993).
42. Myers J, Prakash M, Froelicher V, Do D, Partington S, Atwood JE: Exercise capacity and mortality among men referred for exercise testing. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 793-801 (2002).
43. Cook S, Togni M, Schaub MC, Wenaweser P, Hess OM: High heart rate: a cardiovascular risk factor? Eur. Heart J. 27, 2387-2393 (2006).
44. Huikuri H, Makikallio T, Airaksinen K, Mitrani R, Castellanos A, Myerburg R: Measurement of heart rate variability: a clinical tool or a research toy? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 34, 1878-1883 (1999).
45. Huikuri H, Makikallio T, Airaksinen K et al.: Power-law relationship of heart rate variability as a predictor of mortality in the elderly. Circulation 97, 2031-2036 (1998).
46. Huikuri HV, Jokinen V, Syvanne M et al.: Heart rate variability and progression of coronary atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19, 1979-1985 (1999).
47. Dekker JM, Crow RS, Folsom AR et al.: Low heart rate variability in a 2-minute rhythm strip predicts risk of coronary heart disease and mortality from several causes: The ARIC Study. Atherosclerosis risk in communities. Circulation 102, 1239-1244 (2000).
48. Quintana M, Lindvall K, Brolund F, Storck N, Lindblad LE, Ryden L: Markers of risk after acute myocardial infarction. A comparison of clinical variables, ambulatory and exercise electrocardiography, echocardiography, and stress echocardiography. Coron. Artery Dis. 8, 327-334 (1997).
49. Lauer MS, Okin PM, Larson MG, Evans JC, Levy D: Impaired heart rate response to graded exercise. Prognostic implications of chronotropic incompetence in the Framingham heart study. Circulation 93, 1520-1526 (1996).
50. Poulsen SH, Jensen SE, Moller JE, Egstrup K: Prognostic value of left ventricular diastolic function and association with heart rate variability after a first acute myocardial infarction. Heart 86, 376-380 (2001).
51. Vinik AI, Erbas T: Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy: diagnosis and management. Curr. Diab. Rep. 6, 424-430 (2006).
52. Sandvik L, Erikssen J, Ellestad M et al.: Heart rate increase and maximal heart rate during exercise as predictors of cardiovascular mortality: a 16-year follow-up study of 1960 healthy men. Coron. Artery Dis. 6, 667-679 (1995).
53. Jouven X, Empana JP, Schwartz PJ, Desnos M, Courbon D, Ducimetiere P: Heart-rate profile during exercise as a predictor of sudden death. N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 1951-1958 (2005).
54. Lauer MS, Francis GS, Okin PM, Pashkow FJ, Snader CE, Marwick TH: Impaired chronotropic response to exercise stress testing as a predictor of mortality. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 281, 524-529 (1999).
55. Cole C, Blackstone E, Pashkow F, Snader C, Lauer M: Heart-rate recovery immediately after exercise as a predictor of mortality. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 1351-1357 (1999).
56. Williams PT: Physical fitness and activity as separate heart disease risk factors: a metaanalysis. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 33, 754-761 (2001).
57. Leone A, Mori L, Bertanelli F, Fabiano P, Filippelli M: Indoor passive smoking: its effect on cardiac performance. Int. J. Cardiol. 33, 247-251 (1991).
58. Poirier P, Garneau C, Bogaty P et al.: Impact of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction on maximal treadmill performance in normotensive subjects with well-controlled type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Cardiol. 85, 473-477 (2000).
59. Mora S, Redberg RF, Cui Y et al.: Ability of exercise testing to predict cardiovascular and all-cause death in asymptomatic women: a 20-year follow-up of the lipid research clinics prevalence study. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 290, 1600-1607 (2003).
60. Aktas MK, Ozduran V, Pothier CE, Lang R, Lauer MS: Global risk scores and exercise testing for predicting all-cause mortality in a preventive medicine program. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 292, 1462-1468 (2004).
61. Tsuji H, Larson M, Venditti FJ et al.: Impact of reduced heart rate variability on risk for cardiac events. The Framingham heart study. Circulation 94, 2850-2855 (1996).
62. Rahimi K, Thomas A, Adam M, Hayerizadeh BF, Schuler G, Secknus MA: Implications of exercise test modality on modern prognostic markers in patients with known or suspected coronary artery disease: treadmill versus bicycle. Eur. J. Cardiovasc. Prev. Rehabil. 13, 45-50 (2006).
63. Srivastava R, Blackstone EH, Lauer MS: Association of smoking with abnormal exercise heart rate responses and long-term prognosis in a healthy, population-based cohort. Am. J. Med. 109, 20-26 (2000).
64. Hayano J, Yamada M, Sakakibara Y, Fujinami T, Yokoyama K, Watanabe Y, Takata K: Short- and long-term effects of cigarette smoking on heart rate variability. Am. J. Cardiol. 65, 84-88 (1990).
65. Minami J, Ishimitsu T, Matsuoka H: Effects of smoking cessation on blood pressure and heart rate variability in habitual smokers. Hypertension 33, 586-590 (1999).
66. Lauer MS, Pashkow FJ, Larson MG, Levy D: Association of cigarette smoking with chronotropic incompetence and prognosis in the Framingham heart study. Circulation 96, 897-903 (1997).
67. Kobayashi Y, Takeuchi T, Hosoi T, Loeppky JA: Effects of habitual smoking on cardiorespiratory responses to sub-maximal exercise. J. Physiol. Anthropol. Appl. Human Sci. 23, 163-169 (2004).
68. Erikssen G, Liestol K, Bjornholt J, Thaulow E, Sandvik L, Erikssen J: Changes in physical fitness and changes in mortality. Lancet 352, 759-762 (1998).
69. Melo RC, Santos MD, Silva E et al.: Effects of age and physical activity on the autonomic control of heart rate in healthy men. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 38, 1331-1338 (2005).
70. Kristal-Boneh E, Silber H, Harari G, Froom P: The association of resting heart rate with cardiovascular, cancer and all-cause mortality. Eight year follow-up of 3527 male Israeli employees (the CORDIS study). Eur. Heart J. 21, 116-124 (2000).
71. Seccareccia F, Pannozzo F, Dima F et al.: Heart rate as a predictor of mortality: the MATISS project. Am. J. Public Health 91, 1258-1263 (2001).
72. Benetos A, Rudnichi A, Thomas F, Safar M, Guize L: Influence of heart rate on mortality in a French population: role of age, gender, and blood pressure. Hypertension 33, 44-52 (1999).
73. Filipovsky J, Ducimetiere P, Safar ME: Prognostic significance of exercise blood pressure and heart rate in middle-aged men. Hypertension 20, 333-339 (1992).
74. Dyer AR, Persky V, Stamler J et al.: Heart rate as a prognostic factor for coronary heart disease and mortality: findings in three Chicago epidemiologic studies. Am. J. Epidemiol. 112, 736-749 (1980).
75. Levine H: Resting heart rate and life expectancy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 30, 1104-1065 (1997).
76. van Ravenswaaij-Arts CM, Kollee LA, Hopman JC, Stoelinga GB, van Geijn HP: Heart rate variability. Ann. Intern. Med. 118, 436-447 (1993).
77. Stein PK, Kleiger RE: Insights from the study of heart rate variability. Annu. Rev. Med. 50, 249-261 (1999).
78. Kristal-Boneh E, Raifel M, Froom P, Ribak J: Heart rate variability in health and disease. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 21, 85-95 (1995).
79. Malik M, Camm AJ: Components of heart rate variability - what they really mean and what we really measure. Am. J. Cardiol. 72, 821-822 (1993).
80. Dewey FE, Freeman JV, Engel G et al.: Novel predictor of prognosis from exercise stress testing: heart rate variability response to the exercise treadmill test. Am. Heart J. 153, 281-288 (2007).
81. Balanescu S, Corlan AD, Dorobantu M, Gherasim L: Prognostic value of heart rate variability after acute myocardial infarction. Med. Sci. Monit. 10, CR307-CR315 (2004).
82. Hadase M, Azuma A, Zen K et al.: Very low frequency power of heart rate variability is a powerful predictor of clinical prognosis in patients with congestive heart failure. Circ. J. 68, 343-347 (2004).
83. Marraccini P, Orsini E, Nassi G, L'Abbate A: Effects of parasympathetic blockade on ischemic threshold in patients with exercise-induced myocardial ischemia. Am. J. Cardiol. 68, 539-542 (1991).
84. Imai K, Sato H, Hori M et al.: Vagally mediated heart rate recovery after exercise is accelerated in athletes but blunted in patients with chronic heart failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 24, 1529-1535 (1994).
85. Carnethon MR, Jacobs DR Jr, Sidney S et al.: A longitudinal study of physical activity and heart rate recovery: CARDIA, 1987-1993. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 37, 606-612 (2005).
86. Institute of Medicine: Clearing the smoke: assessing the science base for tobacco harm reduction. Executive summary, research conclusions and recommendations. Washington, DC, Institute of Medicine, 2001.
87. Kobayashi F, Watanabe T, Akamatsu Y et al.: Acute effects of cigarette smoking on the heart rate variability of taxi drivers during work. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 31, 360-366 (2005).
88. Barutcu I, Esen AM, Kaya D et al.: Cigarette smoking and heart rate variability: dynamic influence of parasympathetic and sympathetic maneuvers. Ann. Noninvasive Electrocardiol. 10, 324-329 (2005).
89. Arosio E, De Marchi S, Rigoni A, Prior M, Lechi A: Effects of smoking on cardiopulmonary baroreceptor activation and peripheral vascular resistance. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 36, 320-325 (2006).
90. Tanuja D, Siddique K, Siddiqui K, Raychaudhuri C: Effects of smoking cessation on blood pressure and heart rate variability. Ind. Heart J. 414 (2004).
91. Niedermaier ON, Smith ML, Beightol LA, Zukowska-Grojec Z, Goldstein DS, Eckberg DL: Influence of cigarette smoking on human autonomic function. Circulation 88, 562-571 (1993).
92. Killen JD, Ammerman S, Rojas N, Varady J, Haydel F, Robinson TN: Do adolescent smokers experience withdrawal effects when deprived of nicotine? Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 9, 176-182 (2001).
93. Ward M, Swan G, Jack L, Javitz H, Hodgkin J: Ambulatory monitoring of heart rate and blood pressure during the first week after smoking cessation. Am. J. Hypertens. 8, 630-634 (1995).
94. Montgomery LD, Williams GB: Effect of smoking cessation upon circulatory responses to reactive hyperemia and cold pressor stress. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 65, 1005-1009 (1994).
95. Jacober A, Hasenfratz M, Battig K: Circadian and ultradian rhythms in heart rate and motor activity of smokers, abstinent smokers, and nonsmokers. Chronobiol. Int. 11, 320-331 (1994).
96. Stein P, Rottman J, Kleiger R: Effect of 21 mg transdermal nicotine patches and smoking cessation on heart rate variability. Am. J. Cardiol. 77, 701-705 (1996).
97. Ward KD, Garvey AJ, Bliss RE: Evidence of transient heart rate change after smoking cessation. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 106, 337-340 (1992).
98. Oncken CA, White WB, Cooney JL, Van Kirk JR, Ahluwalia JS, Giacco S: Impact of smoking cessation on ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in postmenopausal women. Am. J. Hypertens. 14, 942-949 (2001).
99. Hashizume K, Yamaji K, Kusaka Y, Kawahara K: Effects of abstinence from cigarette smoking on the cardiorespiratory capacity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 32, 386-391 (2000).
100. Kos J, Hasenfratz M, Battig K: Effects of a 2-day abstinence from smoking on dietary, cognitive, subjective, and physiologic parameters among younger and older female smokers. Physiol. Behav. 61, 671-678 (1997).
101. West RJ, Russell MA: Cardiovascular and subjective effects of smoking before and after 24 h of abstinence from cigarettes. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 92, 118-121 (1987).
102. Nemeth-Coslett R, Sampson R, Henningsfield J: Subjective and physiological correlates of cigarette deprivation. Presented at: The Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Society. Annual Meeting of the Amercian Psychological Society. Washington, DC, USA 80, 25-30 (1986).
103. Nicotine replacement therapy for patients with coronary artery disease. Working Group for the Study of Transdermal Nicotine in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 154, 989-995 (1994).
104. West R, Schneider N: Drop in heart rate following smoking cessation may be permanent. Psychopharmacology 94, 566-568 (1988).
105. Persico A: Persistent decrease in heart rate after smoking cessation: A 1-year follow-up study. Psychopharmacology 106, 397-400 (1992).
106. Yotsukura M, Koide Y, Fujii K et al.: Heart rate variability during the first month of smoking cessation. Am. Heart J. 135, 1004-1009 (1998).
107. Nishiue T, Tsuji H, Tokunaga S et al.: Higher heart rate variability of smokers after acute myocardial infarction. Int. J. Cardiol. 68, 165-169 (1999).
108. Unverdorben M, van der Bijl A, Potgieter L et al.: Effects of different levels of cigarette smoke exposure on prognostic heart rate and rate - pressure-product parameters. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. Ther. 13, 175-182 (2008).
109. Van Duser BL, Raven PB: The effects of oral smokeless tobacco on the cardiorespiratory response to exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24, 389-395 (1992).
110. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R: Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 360, 1903-1913 (2002).
111. Emberson JR, Whincup PH, Morris RW, Walker M: Re-assessing the contribution of serum total cholesterol, blood pressure and cigarette smoking to the aetiology of coronary heart disease: impact of regression dilution bias. Eur. Heart J. 24, 1719-1726 (2003).
112. Alli C, Mariotti G, Avanzini F, Colombo F, Barlera S, Tognoni G: Long-term prognostic impact of repeated measurements over 1 year of pulse pressure and systolic blood pressure in the elderly. J. Hum. Hypertens. 19, 355-363 (2005).
113. Sytkowski PA, Kannel WB, D'Agostino RB: Changes in risk factors and the decline in mortality from cardiovascular disease. The Framingham heart study. N. Engl. J. Med. 322, 1635-1641 (1990).
114. Wilson P: Established risk factors and coronary artery disease: The Framingham Study. Am. J. Hypertens. 7, 7S-12S (1994).
115. van den Hoogen PC, Feskens EJ, Nagelkerke NJ, Menotti A, Nissinen A, Kromhout D: The relation between blood pressure and mortality due to coronary heart disease among men in different parts of the world. Seven countries study research group. N. Engl. J. Med. 342, 1-8 (2000).
116. Behr MJ, Leong KH, Jones RH: Acute effects of cigarette smoking on left ventricular function at rest and exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 13, 9-12 (1981).
117. Ijzerman RG, Serne EH, van Weissenbruch MM, de Jongh RT, Stehouwer CD: Cigarette smoking is associated with an acute impairment of microvascular function in humans. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 104, 247-252 (2003).
118. Mundal R, Kjeldsen SE, Sandvik L, Erikssen G, Thaulow E, Erikssen J: Predictors of 7-year changes in exercise blood pressure: effects of smoking, physical fitness and pulmonary function. J. Hypertens. 15, 245-249 (1997).
119. Poulsen PL, Ebbehoj E, Hansen KW, Mogensen CE: Effects of smoking on 24-h ambulatory blood pressure and autonomic function in normoalbuminuric insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus patients. Am. J. Hypertens. 11, 1093-1099 (1998).
120. Green M, Jucha E, Luz Y: Blood pressure in smokers and nonsmokers: epidemiologic findings. Am. Heart J. 111, 932-940 (1986).
121. Goldbourt U, Medalie JH: Characteristics of smokers, non-smokers and ex-smokers among 10,000 adult males in Israel. II. Physiologic, biochemical and genetic characteristics. Am. J. Epidemiol. 105, 75-86 (1977).
122. Lee DH, Ha MH, Kim JR, Jacobs DR Jr: Effects of smoking cessation on changes in blood pressure and incidence of hypertension: a 4-year follow-up study. Hypertension 37, 194-198 (2001).
123. Merlo J, Asplund K, Lynch J, Rastam L, Dobson A: Population effects on individual systolic blood pressure: a multilevel analysis of the world health organization MONICA project. Am. J. Epidemiol. 159, 1168-1179 (2004).
124. Mikkelsen KL, Wiinberg N, Hoegholm A et al.: Smoking related to 24-h ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate: a study in 352 normotensive danish subjects. Am. J. Hypertens. 10, 483-491 (1997).
125. Verberk WJ, Kessels AG, de Leeuw PW: Prevalence, causes, and consequences of masked hypertension: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Hypertens. 21(9), 969-975 (2008).
126. Gordon T, Kannel WB, Dawber TR, McGee D: Changes associated with quitting cigarette smoking: the Framingham Study. Am. Heart J. 90, 322-328 (1975).
127. Nesto R: CHD: a major burden in Type 2 diabetes. Acta Diabetol. 38(Suppl. 1), S3-S8 (2001).
128. Wheeldon NM, Clarkson P, MacDonald TM: Diastolic heart failure. Eur. Heart J. 15, 1689-1697 (1994).
129. Soufer R, Wohlgelernter D, Vita NA et al.: Intact systolic left ventricular function in clinical congestive heart failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 55, 1032-1036 (1985).
130. Grossman W: Diastolic dysfunction and congestive heart failure. Circulation 81, III1-III7 (1990).
131. Cohn JN, Johnson G: Heart failure with normal ejection fraction. The v-heft study. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group. Circulation 81, III48-III53 (1990).
132. Schussheim AE, Diamond JA, Jhang JS, Phillips RA: Midwall fractional shortening is an independent predictor of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in asymptomatic patients with systemic hypertension. Am. J. Cardiol. 82, 1056-1059 (1998).
133. Inouye I, Massie B, Loge D, Topic N, Silverstein D, Simpson P, Tubau J: Abnormal left ventricular filling: an early finding in mild to moderate systemic hypertension. Am. J. Cardiol. 53, 120-126 (1984).
134. Nishimura RA, Tajik AJ: Evaluation of diastolic filling of left ventricle in health and disease: Doppler echocardiography is the clinician's Rosetta Stone. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 30, 8-18 (1997).
135. Fouad FM, Slominski JM, Tarazi RC: Left ventricular diastolic function in hypertension: relation to left ventricular mass and systolic function. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 3, 1500-1506 (1984).
136. Clarkson P, Wheeldon N, Macdonald T: Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction. QJ Med. 87, 143-148 (1994).
137. Burgess MI, Jenkins C, Sharman JE, Marwick TH: Diastolic stress echocardiography: hemodynamic validation and clinical significance of estimation of ventricular filling pressure with exercise. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 47, 1891-1900 (2006).
138. Rominger MB, Bachmann GF, Geuer M, Puzik M, Pabst W, Rau WS: The determination of left and right ventricular ejection and filling functions of the heart by fast cine MRT in the breath-hold technic in subjects. Rofo 170, 436-441 (1999).
139. No authors listed. How to diagnose diastolic heart failure. European study group on diastolic heart failure. Eur. Heart J. 19, 990-1003 (1998).
140. Labovitz AJ, Pearson AC: Evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function: clinical relevance and recent Doppler echocardiographic insights. Am. Heart J. 114, 836-851 (1987).
141. Yu CM, Sanderson JE, Chan S, Yeung L, Hung YT, Woo KS: Right ventricular diastolic dysfunction in heart failure. Circulation 93, 1509-1514 (1996).
142. Buslenko NS, Buziashvili Iu I, Koksheneva IV, Asymbekova EU, Sherstiannikova OM: Interrelationship between functional state of the right ventricle and severity of heart failure in patients with ischemic heart disease and depressed left ventricular function. Kardiologiia 45, 25-30 (2005).
143. Schannwell CM, Schoebel FC, Schmitz M, Leschke M, Strauer BE: Left ventricular diastolic function parameters after PTCA and stent implantation. Z. Kardiol. 90, 621-629 (2001).
144. Dodek A, Kassebaum DG, Bristow JD: Pulmonary edema in coronary-artery disease without cardiomegaly. Paradox of the stiff heart. N. Engl. J. Med. 286, 1347-1350 (1972).
145. Poulsen SH, Jensen SE, Gotzsche O, Egstrup K: Evaluation and prognostic significance of left ventricular diastolic function assessed by Doppler echocardiography in the early phase of a first acute myocardial infarction. Eur. Heart J. 18, 1882-1889 (1997).
146. Zdrenghea D, Predescu D, Oprea S, Nicoara S: Correlation between left ventricular diastolic function and exercise testing in patients with old myocardial infarction. Rom. J. Intern. Med. 36, 17-21 (1998).
147. Schannwell CM, Schoebel FC, Heggen S et al.: Early decrease in diastolic function in young type I diabetic patients as an initial manifestation of diabetic cardiomyopathy. Z. Kardiol. 88, 338-346 (1999).
148. Zarich SW, Nesto RW: Diabetic cardiomyopathy. Am. Heart J. 118, 1000-1012 (1989).
149. Posner J, Ilya R, Wanderman K, Weitzman S: Systolic time intervals in diabetes. Diabetologia 24, 249-252 (1983).
150. Irace L, Iarussi D, Guadagno I et al.: Left ventricular performance and autonomic dysfunction in patients with long-term insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Acta Diabetol. 33, 269-273 (1996).
151. Klein AL, Hatle LK, Taliercio CP et al.: Prognostic significance of Doppler measures of diastolic function in cardiac amyloidosis. A Doppler Echocardiography Study. Circulation 83, 808-816 (1991).
152. Stainback RF: Congestive heart failure arising from diastolic dysfunction in the presence of normal left-ventricular systolic function. Tex. Heart Inst. J. 26, 34-41 (1999).
153. Schannwell CM, Schoebel FC, Marx R, Plehn G, Leschke M, Strauer BE: Prognostic relevance of left ventricular diastolic function parameters in dilated cardiomyopathy. Z. Kardiol. 90, 269-279 (2001).
154. Werner GS, Schaefer C, Dirks R, Figulla HR: Clinical and prognostic implications of left ventricular filling abnormalities in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 86, 446 (1992).
155. Yu HC, Sanderson JE: Different prognostic significance of right and left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in heart failure. Clin. Cardiol. 22, 504-512 (1999).
156. Strauer BE, Motz W, Vogt M, Schwartzkopff B: Impaired coronary flow reserve in NIDDM: a possible role for diabetic cardiopathy in humans. Diabetes 46(Suppl. 2), 119-124 (1997).
157. Mitu F, Mitu M: Clinical aspects of the left ventricular diastolic dysfunction at patients with coronary heart disease. Rev. Med. Chir. Soc. Med. Nat. Iasi. 105, 733-739 (2001).
158. Szlachcic J, Massie BM, Kramer BL, Topic N, Tubau J: Correlates and prognostic implication of exercise capacity in chronic congestive heart failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 55, 1037-1042 (1985).
159. Franciosa JA, Baker BJ, Seth L: Pulmonary versus systemic hemodynamics in determining exercise capacity of patients with chronic left ventricular failure. Am. Heart J. 110, 807-813 (1985).
160. Fink LI, Wilson JR, Ferraro N: Exercise ventilation and pulmonary artery wedge pressure in chronic stable congestive heart failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 57, 249-253 (1986).
161. Appleton CP, Hatle LK: The natural history of left ventricular filling abnormalities: assessment by two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. Echocardiography Ultrasound Allied Tech. 9, 437-457 (1992).
162. Vanoverschelde JJ, Essamri B, Vanbutsele R et al.: Contribution of left ventricular diastolic function to exercise capacity in normal subjects. J. Appl. Physiol. 74, 2225-2233 (1993).
163. Packer M: Abnormalities of diastolic function as a potential cause of exercise intolerance in chronic heart failure. Circulation 8, III78-III86 (1990).
164. Romano M, Cardei S, de Arcangelis E et al.: Effects of nisoldipine and/or enalapril on left ventricular function and exercise capacity in patients with recent anterior myocardial infarction and mild cardiac dysfunction. Am. Heart J. 133, 268-272 (1997).
165. Kruger S, Hoffmann R, Skobel E, Breuer C, Janssens U, Hanrath P: Impairment of ventilatory parameters and exercise capacity in patients with pulmonary hypertension and chronic heart insufficiency. Dtsch Med. Wochenschr. 127, 839-844 (2002).
166. Goraya TY, Jacobsen SJ, Pellikka PA et al.: Prognostic value of treadmill exercise testing in elderly persons. Ann. Intern. Med. 132, 862-870 (2000).
167. Roger VL, Jacobsen SJ, Pellikka PA, Miller TD, Bailey KR, Gersh BJ: Prognostic value of treadmill exercise testing: A population-based study in Olmsted county, Minnesota. Circulation 98, 2836-2841 (1998).
168. Fleg J, Pina I, Balady G et al.: Assessment of functional capacity in clinical and research applications. An advisory from the Committee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention, Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association. Circulation 102, 1591-1597 (2000).
169. Myers J, Gullestad L, Vagelos R et al.: Clinical, hemodynamic, and cardiopulmonary exercise test determinants of survival in patients referred for evaluation of heart failure. Ann. Intern. Med. 129, 286-293 (1998).
170. Stelken AM, Younis LT, Jennison SH et al.: Prognostic value of cardiopulmonary exercise testing using percent achieved of predicted peak oxygen uptake for patients with ischemic and dilated cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 27, 345-352 (1996).
171. Aaronson KD, Mancini DM: Is percentage of predicted maximal exercise oxygen consumption a better predictor of survival than peak exercise oxygen consumption for patients with severe heart failure? J. Heart Lung Transplant 14, 981-989 (1995).
172. Belardinelli R, Georgiou D, Cianci G, Purcaro A: Randomized, controlled trial of long-term moderate exercise training in chronic heart failure: effects on functional capacity, quality of life, and clinical outcome. Circulation 99, 1172-1183 (1999).
173. Raev DC: Which left ventricular function is impaired earlier in the evolution of diabetic cardiomyopathy? An echocardiographic study of young Type I diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 17, 633-639 (1994).
174. Dougherty AH, Naccarelli GV, Gray EL, Hicks CH, Goldstein RA: Congestive heart failure with normal systolic function. Am. J. Cardiol. 54, 778-782 (1984).
175. Rihal CS, Nishimura RA, Hatle LK, Bailey KR, Tajik AJ: Systolic and diastolic dysfunction in patients with clinical diagnosis of dilated cardiomyopathy. Relation to symptoms and prognosis. Circulation 90, 2772-2779 (1994).
176. Kopecky SL, Gersh BJ: Dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis: natural history, etiology, clinical manifestations, and management. Curr. Probl. Cardiol. 12, 569-647 (1987).
177. Fagard R, Pardaens K: Left ventricular diastolic function predicts outcome in uncomplicated hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. 14, 504-508 (2001).
178. Schillaci G, Pasqualini L, Verdecchia P et al.: Prognostic significance of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in essential hypertension. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 39, 2005-2011 (2002).
179. Gandini C, Castoldi AF, Candura SM et al.: Cardiac damage in pediatric carbon monoxide poisoning. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 39, 45-51 (2001).
180. Cerisano G, Bolognese L: Echo-Doppler evaluation of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction during acute myocardial infarction: methodological, clinical and prognostic implications. Ital. Heart J. 2, 13-20 (2001).
181. Poulsen SH, Jensen SE, Egstrup K: Longitudinal changes and prognostic implications of left ventricular diastolic function in first acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 137, 910-918 (1999).
182. Poulsen SH, Moller JE, Norager B, Egstrup K: Prognostic implications of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction with preserved systolic function following acute myocardial infarction. Cardiology 95, 190-197 (2001).
183. Oh JK, Ding ZP, Gersh BJ, Bailey KR, Tajik AJ: Restrictive left ventricular diastolic filling identifies patients with heart failure after acute myocardial infarction. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 5, 497-503 (1992).
184. Moller JE, Sondergaard E, Poulsen SH, Egstrup K: Pseudonormal and restrictive filling patterns predict left ventricular dilation and cardiac death after a first myocardial infarction: a serial color m-mode Doppler echocardiographic study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 36, 1841-1846 (2000).
185. Moller JE, Egstrup K, Kober L, Poulsen SH, Nyvad O, Torp-Pedersen C: Prognostic importance of systolic and diastolic function after acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 145, 147-153 (2003).
186. Persson H, Linder-Klingsell E, Eriksson SV, Erhardt L: Heart failure after myocardial infarction: the importance of diastolic dysfunction. A prospective clinical and echocardiographic study. Eur. Heart J. 16, 496-505 (1995).
187. Nijland F, Kamp O, Karreman AJ, van Eenige MJ, Visser CA: Prognostic implications of restrictive left ventricular filling in acute myocardial infarction: a serial Doppler echocardiographic study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 30, 1618-1624 (1997).
188. Poulsen SH, Andersen NH, Ivarsen PI, Mogensen CE, Egeblad H: Doppler tissue imaging reveals systolic dysfunction in patients with hypertension and apparent "isolated" diastolic dysfunction. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 16, 724-731 (2003).
189. Fuchs JB, Werner GS, Schulz R, Kreuzer H: Prognostic significance of changes in left ventricular diastolic function in follow-up of dilatative cardiomyopathy. Z. Kardiol. 84, 712-723 (1995).
190. Xie GY, Berk MR, Smith MD, Gurley JC, DeMaria AN: Prognostic value of Doppler transmitral flow patterns in patients with congestive heart failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 24, 132-139 (1994).
191. Shen WF, Tribouilloy C, Rey JL et al.: Prognostic significance of Doppler-derived left ventricular diastolic filling variables in dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. Heart J. 124, 1524-1533 (1992).
192. Pinamonti B, Di Lenarda A, Sinagra G, Camerini F: Restrictive left ventricular filling pattern in dilated cardiomyopathy assessed by Doppler echocardiography: clinical, echocardiographic and hemodynamic correlations and prognostic implications. Heart muscle disease study group. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 22, 808-815 (1993).
193. Kuhn H, Becker R, Fischer J et al.: The etiology, course and prognosis of dilated cardiomyopathy. Z. Kardiol. 71, 497-508 (1982).
194. Lavine SJ, Arends D: Importance of the left ventricular filling pressure on diastolic filling in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 64, 61-65 (1989).
195. Fuster V, Gersh BJ, Giuliani ER, Tajik AJ, Brandenburg RO, Frye RL: The natural history of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 47, 525-531 (1981).
196. Hansen A, Haass M, Zugck C et al.: Prognostic value of Doppler echocardiographic mitral inflow patterns: Implications for risk stratification in patients with chronic congestive heart failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 37, 1049-1055 (2001).
197. Fruhwald FM, Watzinger N, Schumacher M, Zweiker R, Pokan R, Klein W: The extent of diastolic dysfunction and its correlation with subjective impairment of physical capacity in dilated cardiomyopathy. Dtsch Med. Wochenschr. 122, 845-848 (1997).
198. Grossman W, McLaurin LP, Rolett EL: Alterations in left ventricular relaxation and diastolic compliance in congestive cardiomyopathy. Cardiovasc. Res. 13, 514-522 (1979).
199. Aguirre FV, Pearson AC, Lewen MK, McCluskey M, Labovitz AJ: Usefulness of Doppler echocardiography in the diagnosis of congestive heart failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 63, 1098-1102 (1989).
200. Pitzalis MV, Iacoviello M, Massari F et al.: Influence of gender and family history of hypertension on autonomic control of heart rate, diastolic function and brain natriuretic peptide. J. Hypertens 19, 143-148 (2001).
201. Hung MJ, Cherng WJ, Wang CH, Kuo LT: Effects of verapamil in normal elderly individuals with left ventricular diastolic dysfunction. Echocardiography 18, 123-129 (2001).
202. Setaro JF, Zaret BL, Schulman DS, Black HR, Soufer R: Usefulness of verapamil for congestive heart failure associated with abnormal left ventricular diastolic filling and normal left ventricular systolic performance. Am. J. Cardiol. 66, 981-986 (1990).
203. Onose Y, Oki T, Yamada H et al.: Effect of cilnidipine on left ventricular diastolic function in hypertensive patients as assessed by pulsed Doppler echocardiography and pulsed tissue Doppler imaging. Jpn Circ. J. 65, 305-309 (2001).
204. Gandhi SK, Powers JC, Nomeir AM et al.: The pathogenesis of acute pulmonary edema associated with hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med. 344, 17-22 (2001).
205. Sitges M, Shiota T, Lever HM et al.: Comparison of left ventricular diastolic function in obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in patients undergoing percutaneous septal alcohol ablation versus surgical myotomy/myectomy. Am. J. Cardiol. 91, 817-821 (2003).
206. Petrella RJ, Nichol PM, Cunningham DA, Paterson DH: Verapamil improves left ventricular filling and exercise performance in hypertensive and normotensive elderly individuals. Can. J. Cardiol. 10, 973-981 (1994).
207. Burgess MI, Ray SG: Doppler in the assessment of diastolic function. Eur. Heart J. 20, 471 (1999).
208. Smiseth OA: Assessment of ventricular diastolic function. Can. J. Cardiol. 17, 1167-1176 (2001).
209. Rossvoll O, Hatle LK: Pulmonary venous flow velocities recorded by transthoracic Doppler ultrasound: relation to left ventricular diastolic pressures. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 21, 1687-1696 (1993).
210. Nishimura RA, Abel MD, Hatle LK, Tajik AJ: Assessment of diastolic function of the heart: background and current applications of Doppler echocardiography. Part II. Clinical studies. Mayo Clin. Proc. 64, 181-204 (1989).
211. Takatsuji H, Mikami T, Urasawa K et al.: A new approach for evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function: spatial and temporal analysis of left ventricular filling flow propagation by color m-mode Doppler echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 27, 365-371 (1996).
212. Garcia MJ, Thomas JD, Klein AL: New Doppler echocardiographic applications for the study of diastolic function. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 32, 865-875 (1998).
213. Garcia MJ, Ares MA, Asher C, Rodriguez L, Vandervoort P, Thomas JD: An index of early left ventricular filling that combined with pulsed Doppler peak e velocity may estimate capillary wedge pressure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 29, 448-454 (1997).
214. Cohen GI, Pietrolungo JF, Thomas JD, Klein AL: A practical guide to assessment of ventricular diastolic function using Doppler echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 27, 1753-1760 (1996).
215. Pozzoli M, Capomolla S, Opasich C et al.: Left ventricular filling pattern and pulmonary wedge pressure are closely related in patients with recent anterior myocardial infarction and left ventricular dysfunction. Eur. Heart J. 13, 1067-1073 (1992).
216. Traversi E, Pozzoli M, Cioffi G et al.: Mitral flow velocity changes after 6 months of optimized therapy provide important hemodynamic and prognostic information in patients with chronic heart failure. Am. Heart J. 132, 809-819 (1996).
217. Giannuzzi P, Imparato A, Temporelli PL et al.: Doppler-derived mitral deceleration time of early filling as a strong predictor of pulmonary capillary wedge pressure in postinfarction patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 23, 1630-1637 (1994).
218. Stoddard M, Pearson A, Kern M, Ratcliff J, Mrosek D, Labovitz A: Left ventricular diastolic function: comparison of pulsed Doppler echocardiographic and hemodynamic indexes in subjects with and without coronary artery disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 13, 327-336 (1989).
219. Brunazzi MC, Chirillo F, Pasqualini M et al.: Estimation of left ventricular diastolic pressures from precordial pulsed-Doppler analysis of pulmonary venous and mitral flow. Am. Heart J. 128, 293-300 (1994).
220. Appleton CP, Hatle LK, Popp RL: Relation of transmitral flow velocity patterns to left ventricular diastolic function: new insights from a combined hemodynamic and Doppler echocardiographic study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 12, 426-440 (1988).
221. Yu CM, Sanderson JE, Shum IO et al.: Diastolic dysfunction and natriuretic peptides in systolic heart failure. Higher anp and bnp levels are associated with the restrictive filling pattern. Eur. Heart J. 17, 1694-1702 (1996).
222. Bibbins-Domingo K, Gupta R, Na B, Wu AH, Schiller NB, Whooley MA: N-terminal fragment of the prohormone brain-type natriuretic peptide (nt-probnp), cardiovascular events, and mortality in patients with stable coronary heart disease. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 297, 169-176 (2007).
223. Werner GS, Fuchs JB, Schulz R: Doppler echocardiographic analysis of diastolic function in dilatative cardiomyopathy for the evaluation of its progression and prognosis. Dtsch Med. Wochenschr. 120, 507-514 (1995).
224. Cerisano G, Bolognese L, Carrabba N et al.: Doppler-derived mitral deceleration time: an early strong predictor of left ventricular remodeling after reperfused anterior acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 99, 230-236 (1999).
225. Cecconi M, Manfrin M, Zanoli R et al.: Doppler echocardiographic evaluation of left ventricular end-diastolic pressure in patients with coronary artery disease. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 9, 241-250 (1996).
226. St John SM, Pfeffer MA, Plappert T et al.: Quantitative two-dimensional echocardiographic measurements are major predictors of adverse cardiovascular events after acute myocardial infarction. The protective effects of captopril. Circulation 89, 68-75 (1994).
227. Rakowski H, Appleton C, Chan KL et al.: Canadian consensus recommendations for the measurement and reporting of diastolic dysfunction by echocardiography: from the investigators of consensus on diastolic dysfunction by echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 9, 736-760 (1996).
228. Guven A, Koksal N, Buyukbese M et al.: Effects of using a different kind of smokeless tobacco on cardiac parameters: "Maras powder". Anadolu. Kardiyol. Derg. 3, 230-235 (2003).
229. Karakaya O, Barutcu I, Esen AM et al.: Acute smoking-induced alterations in Doppler echocardiographic measurements in chronic smokers. Tex. Heart Inst. J. 33, 134-138 (2006).
230. Rosen BD, Saad MF, Shea S et al.: Hypertension and smoking are associated with reduced regional left ventricular function in asymptomatic: individuals the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 47, 1150-1158 (2006).
231. Ileri M, Yetkin E, Tandogan I et al.: Effect of habitual smoking on QT interval duration and dispersion. Am. J. Cardiol. 88, 322-325 (2001).
232. DeBruyne M, Hoes A, Kors J, Hofman A, van Bemmel J, Grobbee D: QTc dispersion predicts cardiac mortality in the elderly: The Rotterdam Study. Circulation 97, 467-472 (1998).
233. Lucini D, Bertocchi F, Malliani A, Pagani M: A controlled study of the autonomic changes produced by habitual cigarette smoking in healthy subjects. Cardiovasc. Res. 31, 633-639 (1996).
234. Munjal S, Demmel V, van der Bijl A, Roethig H, Unverdorben M: Heart rate variability in adult smokers after three-day exposure to conventional cigarettes, a reduced exposure cigarette, and no-smoking. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. Ther. 14, 192-198 (2009).
235. Nigro G, Politano L, Santangelo L et al.: Is the value of QT dispersion a valid method to foresee the risk of sudden death? A study in Becker patients. Heart 87, 156-157 (2002).
236. Singh K: Effect of smoking on QT interval, QT dispersion and rate pressure product. Indian Heart J. 56, 140-142 (2004).
237. Dilaveris P, Pantazis A, Gialafos E, Triposkiadis F, Gialafos J: The effects of cigarette smoking on the heterogeneity of ventricular repolarization. Am. Heart J. 142, 833-837 (2001).
238. Hallstrom AP, Cobb LA, Ray R: Smoking as a risk factor for recurrence of sudden cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 314, 271-275 (1986).
239. Leon AS, Connett J: Physical activity and 10.5 year mortality in the multiple risk factor intervention trial (MRFIT). Int. J. Epidemiol. 20, 690-697 (1991).
240. Leon AS, Myers MJ, Connett J: Leisure time physical activity and the 16-year risks of mortality from coronary heart disease and all-causes in the multiple risk factor intervention trial (MRFIT). Int. J. Sports Med. 18(Suppl. 3), S208-S215 (1997).
241. Hakim A, Petrovitch H, Burchfiel C et al.: Effects of walking on mortality among nonsmoking retired men. N. Engl. J. Med. 338, 94-99 (2000).
242. Hawkins P, Johnson LC, Nikoletou D et al.: Proportional assist ventilation as an aid to exercise training in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 57, 853-859 (2002).
243. Normandin EA, McCusker C, Connors M, Vale F, Gerardi D, ZuWallack RL: An evaluation of two approaches to exercise conditioning in pulmonary rehabilitation. Chest 121, 1085-1091 (2002).
244. Wadell K, Henriksson-Larsen K, Lundgren R: Physical training with and without oxygen in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and exercise-induced hypoxaemia. J. Rehabil. Med. 33, 200-205 (2001).
245. Jones NL, Jones G, Edwards RH: Exercise tolerance in chronic airway obstruction. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 103, 477-491 (1971).
246. Erikssen G: Physical fitness and changes in mortality: the survival of the fittest. Sports Med. 31, 571-576 (2001).
247. Ronnevik PK, von der Lippe G: Prognostic importance of predischarge exercise capacity for long-term mortality and non-fatal myocardial infarction in patients admitted for suspected acute myocardial infarction and treated with metoprolol. Eur. Heart J. 13, 1468-1472 (1992).
248. Gordon DJ, Leon AS, Ekelund LG et al.: Smoking, physical activity, and other predictors of endurance and heart rate response to exercise in asymptomatic hypercholesterolemic men. The lipid research clinics coronary primary prevention trial. Am. J. Epidemiol. 125, 587-600 (1987).
249. Gordon DJ, Probstfield JL, Rubenstein C et al.: Coronary risk factors and exercise test performance in asymptomatic hypercholesterolemic men: application of proportional hazards analysis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 120, 210-224 (1984).
250. Cooper MK, Gey CGO, Bottensberg RA: Effects of cigarette smoking on endurance performance. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 203, 189-192 (1968).
251. Krumholz RA, Chevalier RB, Ross JC: Changes in cardiopulmonary functions related to abstinence from smoking. Ann. Intern. Med. 62, 197-207 (1966).
252. Hirsch GL, Sue DY, Wasserman K, Robinson TE, Hansen JE: Immediate effects of cigarette smoking on cardiorespiratory responses to exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 58, 1975-1981 (1985).
253. Hinderliter AL, Adams KF Jr, Price CJ, Herbst MC, Koch G, Sheps DS: Effects of low-level carbon monoxide exposure on resting and exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias in patients with coronary artery disease and no baseline ectopy. Arch. Environ. Health 44, 89-93 (1989).
254. Fabre J, Varray A, Mercier J, Caillaud C, Prefaut C: Place of muscular exercise test in screening in asymptomatic smokers. C R Seances Soc. Biol. Fil. 184, 351-357 (1990).
255. Handa S, Yamazaki H, Ohonishi S, Abe S, Ishikawa S: Smoking habit and cardiovascular diseases. Nihon Kyobu Shikkan Gakkai Za 29, 206-210 (1991).
256. Sidney S, Sternfeld B, Gidding SS et al.: Cigarette smoking and submaximal exercise test duration in a biracial population of young adults: The CARDIA Study. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 25, 911-916 (1993).
257. Aparici M, Fernandez Gonzalez AL, Alegria E: Aerobic capacity. Differences between smokers and non-smokers. Effects of withdrawal. Rev. Clin. Esp. 193, 424-427 (1993).
258. Albrecht AE, Marcus BH, Roberts M, Forman DE, Parisi AF: Effect of smoking cessation on exercise performance in female smokers participating in exercise training. Am. J. Cardiol. 82, 950-955 (1998).
259. Ianovskii GV, Shuteeva LV, Vasilenko IG: Comparative evaluation of oxygen supply during exercise in healthy persons in relation to smoking. Kardiologiia 31, 46-49 (1991).
260. Rieben FW, Herrmann AB: Acute disorder of ventilation-perfusion of the lung caused by inhalative smoking of 20 cigarettes. Pneumologie 49, 596-600 (1995).
261. Dressendorfer RH, Amsterdam EA, Odland TM. Adolescent smoking and its effect on aerobic exercise tolerance. Phys. Sportmed. 11, 108-119 (1983).
262. Pederson LL, Poulin M, Lefcoe NM, Donald AW, Hill JS: Does cigarette smoking affect the fitness of young adults? Rationale and protocol for future research. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 32, 96-105 (1992).
263. Shaver LG: Smoking and selected physical fitness measures. J. Am. Coll. Health Assoc. 21, 489-492 (1973).
264. Leon AS, Jacobs DR Jr, DeBacker G, Taylor HL: Relationship of physical characteristics and life habits to treadmill exercise capacity. Am. J. Epidemiol. 113, 653-660 (1981).
265. Zeiher AM, Schachinger V, Minners J: Long-term cigarette smoking impairs endothelium-dependent coronary arterial vasodilator function. Circulation 92, 1094-1100 (1995).
266. Karatzi K, Papamichael C, Karatzis E et al.: Acute smoke-induced endothelial dysfunction is more prolonged in smokers than in non-smokers. Int. J. Cardiol. 120, 404-406 (2006).
267. Kato T, Inoue T, Morooka T, Yoshimoto N, Node K: Short-term passive smoking causes endothelial dysfunction via oxidative stress in nonsmokers. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 84, 523-529 (2006).
268. Raupach T, Schafer K, Konstantinides S, Andreas S: Secondhand smoke as an acute threat for the cardiovascular system: a change in paradigm. Eur. Heart J. 27, 386-392 (2006).
269. Holay MP, Paunikar NP, Joshi PP, Sahasrabhojney VS, Tankhiwale SR: Effect of passive smoking on endothelial function in: healthy adults. J. Assoc. Physicians India 52, 114-117 (2004).
270. Ohara Y, Peterson TE, Harrison DG: Hypercholesterolemia increases endothelial superoxide anion production. J. Clin. Invest. 91, 2546-2551 (1993).
271. Minor RL Jr, Myers PR, Guerra R Jr, Bates JN, Harrison DG: Diet-induced atherosclerosis increases the release of nitrogen oxides from rabbit aorta. J. Clin. Invest. 86, 2109-2116 (1990).
272. Ross R: The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis - an update. N. Engl. J. Med. 314, 488-500 (1986).
273. Hashimoto M, Eto M, Akishita M et al.: Correlation between flow-mediated vasodilatation of the brachial artery and intima-media thickness in the carotid artery in men. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19, 2795-2800 (1999).
274. Liao JK: Endothelium and acute coronary syndromes. Clin. Chem. 44, 1799-1808 (1998).
275. Suwaidi JA, Hamasaki S, Higano ST, Nishimura RA, Holmes DR Jr, Lerman A: Long-term follow-up of patients with mild coronary artery disease and endothelial dysfunction. Circulation 101, 948-954 (2000).
276. Schächinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM: Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation 101, 1899-1906 (2000).
277. Blair SN, Kohl HW III, Paffenbarger RS Jr, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW: Physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy men and women. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 262, 2395-2401 (1989).
278. Weber K, Janicki J: Cardiopulmonary exercise testing for evaluation of chronic cardiac failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 55, 22A-31A (1985).
279. Sandvik L, Erikssen G, Thaulow E: Long term effects of smoking on physical fitness and lung function: a longitudinal study of 1393 middle aged Norwegian men for seven years. Br. Med. J. 311, 715-718 (1995).
280. Allred EN, Bleecker ER, Chaitman BR et al.: Short-term effects of carbon monoxide exposure on the exercise performance of subjects with coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 321, 1426-1432 (1989).
281. McMurray RG, Hicks LL, Thompson DL: The effects of passive inhalation of cigarette smoke on exercise performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 54, 196-200 (1985).
282. Adir Y, Merdler A, Ben Haim S, Front A, Harduf R, Bitterman H: Effects of exposure to low concentrations of carbon monoxide on exercise performance and myocardial perfusion in young healthy men. Occup. Environ. Med. 56, 535-538 (1999).
283. Kleinman MT, Davidson DM, Vandagriff RB, Caiozzo VJ, Whittenberger JL: Effects of short-term exposure to carbon monoxide in subjects with coronary artery disease. Arch. Environ. Health 44, 361-369 (1989).
284. Rotstein A, Sagiv M, Yaniv-Tamir A, Fisher N, Dotan R: Smoking effect on exercise response kinetics of oxygen uptake and related variables. Int. J. Sports Med. 12, 281-284 (1991).
285. German AK: The effect of tobacco smoking on tissue oxygen balance. Vrach Delo 5, 86-89 (1991).
286. Chance B, Erecinska M, Wagner M: Mitochondrial responses to carbon monoxide toxicity. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 174, 193-204 (1970).
287. Glantz SA, Parmley WW: Passive smoking and heart disease. Epidemiology, physiology, and biochemistry. Circulation 83, 1-12 (1991).
288. Powell JT, Worrell P, MacSweeney ST, Franks PJ, Greenhalgh RM: Smoking as a risk factor for abdominal aortic aneurysm. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 800, 246-248 (1996).
289. Jensen JA, Goodson WH, Hopf HW, Hunt TK: Cigarette smoking decreases tissue oxygen. Arch. Surg. 126, 1131-1134 (1991).
290. Asmussen I, Kjeldsen K: Intimal ultrastructure of human umbilical arteries. Observations on arteries from newborn children of smoking and nonsmoking mothers. Circ. Res. 36, 579-589 (1975).
291. Davis JA, Whipp BJ, Lamarra N, Huntsman DJ, Frank MH, Wasserman K: Effect of ramp slope on determination of aerobic parameters from the ramp exercise test. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 14, 339-343 (1982).
292. Reinders JH, Brinkman HJ, van Mourik JA, de Groot PG: Cigarette smoke impairs endothelial cell prostacyclin production. Arteriosclerosis 6, 15-23 (1986).
293. Gryglewski R, Palmer R, Moncada S: Superoxide anion is involved in the breakdown of endothelium-derived vascular relaxing factor. Nature 320, 454-456 (1992).
294. Knudson RJ, Kaltenborn WT, Burrows B: The effects of cigarette smoking and smoking cessation on the carbon monoxide diffusing capacity of the lung in asymptomatic subjects. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 140, 645-651 (1989).
295. Frans A, Stanescu DC, Veriter C, Clerbaux T, Brasseur L: Smoking and pulmonary diffusing capacity. Scand. J. Respir. Dis. 56, 165-183 (1975).
296. Krumholz RA, Chevalier RB, Ross JC: Cardiopulmonary function in young smokers. A comparison of pulmonary measurements and some cardiopulmonary function measurements and some cardiopulmonary responses to exercise between a group of young smokers and a comparable group of nonsmokers. Ann. Intern. Med. 60, 603-610 (1964).
297. Krumholz RA, Hedrick EC: Pulmonary function differences in normal smoking and nonsmoking, middle-aged, white-collar workers. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 107, 225-230 (1973).
298. Leech JA, Martz L, Liben A, Becklake MR: Diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide. The effects of different derivations of breathhold time and alveolar volume and of carbon monoxide back pressure on calculated results. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 132, 1127-1129 (1985).
299. Miller A, Thornton JC, Warshaw R, Anderson H, Teirstein AS, Selikoff IJ: Single breath diffusing capacity in a representative sample of the population of Michigan, a large industrial state. Predicted values, lower limits of normal, and frequencies of abnormality by smoking history. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 127, 270-277 (1983).
300. Rankin J, Gee JBL, Chosy LW: The influence of age and smoking on pulmonary diffusing capacity in healthy subjects. Med. Thorac. 22, 366-374 (1965).
301. Teculescu DB, Stanescu DC: Lung diffusing capacity. Normal values in male smokers and non-smokers using the breath-holding technique. Scand. J. Respir. Dis. 51, 137-149 (1970).
302. Menkes HA, Permutt S, Cohen BH: Patterns of pulmonary function abnormalities in high risk groups. In: The lungs transition between health and disease. Macklem PT, Permutt SJ (Eds), Marcel Dekker, NY, USA, 301-312 (1979).
303. Tockman M, Menkes H, Cohen B et al.: A comparison of pulmonary function in male smokers and nonsmokers. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 114, 711-722 (1976).
304. Rieben FW: Acute ventilation-perfusion mismatching resulting from inhalative smoking of the first cigarette in the morning. Clin. Invest. 70, 328-334 (1992).
305. Rotstein A, Sagiv M: Acute effect of cigarette smoking on physiologic response to graded exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 7, 322-324 (1986).
306. Frayser R: The effect of repetitive exercise on ventilatory function in smokers and nonsmokers. South Med. J. 67, 926-929 (1974).
307. Brown HV, Wasserman K: Exercise performance in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases. Med. Clin. North Am. 65, 525-547 (1981).
308. NIH Definitions Working Group. www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/AC/00/ slides/3593S1-03-downing.ppt (see #264,4,BIOMARKERS NIH RESEARCH INTEREST 2000)