Cognitive impulsivity in Parkinson's disease patients: Assessment and pathophysiology

Movement Disorders

Volumn 24, Issue 16, 2009, Pages 2316-2327

  Robert, Gabriel ^a,b,c   Drapier, Dominique ^b,c   Verin, Marc ^d   Millet, Bruno ^b,c   Azulay, Jean Philippe ^e   Blin, Olivier ^a  

^a AIX MARSEILLE UNIVERSITY   (France)

^b RENNES UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (France)

^c URU 425 Comportements et Noyaux Gris Centraux   (France)

^d PONTCHAILLOU UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (France)

^e TIMONE HOSPITAL   (France)

Author keywords

Dopamine; Impulsivity; Limbic; Parkinson's disease; Subthalamic nucleus

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE 3 RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; PRAMIPEXOLE;

AVERSION; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; COGNITION; COGNITIVE IMPULSIVITY; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; DECISION MAKING; DOPAMINERGIC TRANSMISSION; DRUG MEGADOSE; EXPERIMENTAL STUDY; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; IMPULSIVENESS; LEARNING; LOW DRUG DOSE; MOLECULAR MECHANICS; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REACTION TIME; RECEPTOR AFFINITY; REVIEW; REWARD; SELF REPORT; SUBTHALAMIC NUCLEUS;

COGNITION; DECISION MAKING; DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE AGENTS; HUMANS; IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PARKINSON DISEASE; REWARD;

EID: 73949134895     PISSN: 08853185     EISSN: 15318257     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/mds.22836     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Allen TJ, Moeller FG, Rhoades HM, Cherek DR. Impulsivity and history of drug dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 1998; 50:137-145.
2. Corruble E, Damy C, Guel. JD. Impulsivity: a relevant dimension in depression regarding suicide attempts? J Affect Disord 1999;53:211-215.
3. Arce E, Santisteban C. Impulsivity: a review. Psicothema 2006; 18:213-220.
4. Evenden JL. Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;146:348-361.
5. Hollander E, Evers M. New developments in impulsivity. Lancet 2001;358:949-950.
6. American Psychiatric Association (APA). DSM IV TR: manuel diagnostique et statistique des troubles mentaux, 4é ed. Paris: Masson; 2003.
7. Pattij T, Vanderschuren LJ. The neuropharmacology of impulsive behaviour. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2008;29:192-199.
8. Baunez C, Christakou A, Chudasama Y, Forni C, Robbins TW. Bilateral high-frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus on attentional performance: transient deleterious effects and enhanced motivation in both intact and parkinsonian rats. Eur J Neurosci 2007;25:1187-1194.
9. Kaladjian A, Jeanningros R, Azorin JM, Grimault S, Anton JL, Mazzola-Pomietto P. Blunted activation in right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex during motor response inhibition in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2007;97:184-193.
10. Verdejo-Garcia A, Lawrence AJ, Clark L. Impulsivity as a vulnerability marker for substance-use disorders: review of findings from high-risk research, problem gamblers and genetic association studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008;32:777-810.
11. Vassileva J, Gonzalez R, Bechara A, Martin EM. Are all drug addicts impulsive? Effects of antisociality and extent of multi-drug use on cognitive and motor impulsivity. Addict Behav 2007;32:3071-3076.
12. Dalley JW, Mar AC, Economidou D, Robbins TW. Neurobehavioral mechanisms of impulsivity: fronto-striatal systems and functional neurochemistry. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2008;90: 250-260.
13. Zuckerman M, Bone RN, Neary R, Mangelsdorff D, Brustman B. What is the sensation seeker? Personality trait and experience correlates of the Sensation-Seeking Scales. J Consult Clin Psychol 1972;39:308-321.
14. Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM, Przybeck TR. A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:975-990.
15. Goudriaan AE, Oosterlaan J, De Beurs E, Van Den Brink W. The role of self-reported impulsivity and reward sensitivity versus neurocognitive measures of disinhibition and decision-making in the prediction of relapse in pathological gamblers. Psychol Med 2008;38:41-50.
16. Congdon E, Lesch KP, Canli T. Analysis of DRD4 and DAT polymorphisms and behavioral inhibition in healthy adults: implications for impulsivity. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008;147B:27-32.
17. Wittmann M, Paulus MP. Decision making, impulsivity and time perception. Trends Cogn Sci 2008;12:7-12.
18. Bechara A, Damasio H, Damasio AR. Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex 2000;10:295-307.
19. Bechara A. Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neurocognitive perspective. Nat Neurosci 2005;8:1458-1463.
20. Sweitzer MM, Allen PA, Kaut KP. Relation of individual differences in impulsivity to nonclinical emotional decision making. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2008;14:878-882.
21. Damasio AR. L'erreur de Descartes, traduction française, Paris (2001) [Descartes' error. Emotion, reason and the human brain. New york: Hayer Collins; 1995 (paperback)]. Paris: Odile Jacob; 2001.
22. Krain AL, Wilson AM, Arbuckle R, Castellanos FX, Milham MP. Distinct neural mechanisms of risk and ambiguity: a meta-analysis of decision-making. Neuroimage 2006;32: 477-484.
23. Hare TA, Camerer CF, Rangel A. Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system. Science 2009;324:646-648.
24. McClure SM, Laibson DI, Loewenstein G, Cohen JD. Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science 2004;306:503-507.
25. Bechara A, Damasio AR, Damasio H, Anderson SW. Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 1994;50(1-3):7-15.
26. Fellows LK, Farah MJ. Different underlying impairments in decision-making following ventromedial and dorsolateral frontal lobe damage in humans. Cereb Cortex 2005;15:58-63.
27. Hanson KL, Luciana M, Sullwold K. Reward-related decision-making deficits and elevated impulsivity among MDMA and other drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008;96(1-2):99-110.
28. Christodoulou T, Lewis M, Ploubidis GB, Frangou S. The relationship of impulsivity to response inhibition and decision-making in remitted patients with bipolar disorder. Eur Psychiatry 2006;21:270-273.
29. Toplak ME, Jain U, Tannock R. Executive and motivational processes in adolescents with Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Behav Brain Funct 2005;1:8.
30. Franken IH, van Strien JW, Nijs I, Muris P. Impulsivity is associated with behavioral decision-making deficits. Psychiatry Res 2008;158:155-163.
31. Rolls ET, Hornak J, Wade D, McGrath J. Emotion-related learning in patients with social and emotional changes associated with frontal lobe damage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994;57:1518-1524.
32. Frank MJ, Seeberger LC, O'Reilly RC. By carrot or by stick: cognitive reinforcement learning in Parkinsonism. Science 2004; 306:1940-1943.
33. Frank MJ, Samanta J, Moustafa AA, Sherman SJ. Hold your horses: impulsivity, deep brain stimulation, and medication in Parkinsonism. Science 2007;318:1309-1312.
34. Miller G. Neuroscience. Two therapies release different brakes on impulsive behavior. Science 2007;318:553.
35. Ersche KD, Roiser JP, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. Chronic cocaine but not chronic amphetamine use is associated with perseverative responding in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008;197:421-431.
36. Goudriaan AE, Oosterlaan J, de Beurs E, van den Brink W. Decision making in pathological gambling: a comparison between pathological gamblers, alcohol dependents, persons with Tourette syndrome, and normal controls. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 2005;23:137-151.
37. Vitaro F, Arseneault L, Tremblay RE. Impulsivity predicts problem gambling in low SES adolescent males. Addiction 1999; 94:565-575.
38. Acheson A, Reynolds B, Richards JB, de Wit H. Diazepam impairs behavioral inhibition but not delay discounting or risk taking in healthy adults. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2006;14: 190-198.
39. Hamidovic A, Kang UJ, de Wit H. Effects of low to moderate acute doses of pramipexole on impulsivity and cognition in healthy volunteers. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2008;28: 45-51.
40. Brand M, Labudda K, Kalbe E, et al. Decision-making impairments in patients with Parkinson's disease. Behav Neurol 2004; 15(3-4):77-85.
41. Brand M, Labudda K, Markowitsch HJ. Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. Neural Netw 2006;19:1266-1276.
42. Lejuez CW, Read JP, Kahler CW, et al. Evaluation of a behavioral measure of risk taking: the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). J Exp Psychol Appl 2002;8:75-84.
43. Lee TM, Chan CC, Han SH, Leung AW, Fox PT, Gao JH. An event-related fMRI study on risk taking by healthy individuals of high or low impulsiveness. Neurosci Lett 2008;438: 138-141.
44. Brand M, Kalbe E, Labudda K, Fujiwara E, Kessler J, Markowitsch HJ. Decision-making impairments in patients with pathological gambling. Psychiatry Res 2005;133:91-99.
45. Brand M, Recknor EC, Grabenhorst F, Bechara A. Decisions under ambiguity and decisions under risk: correlations with executive functions and comparisons of two different gambling tasks with implicit and explicit rules. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2007;29:86-99.
46. Rao H, Korczykowski M, Pluta J, Hoang A, Detre JA. Neural correlates of voluntary and involuntary risk taking in the human brain: an fMRI Study of the Balloon Analog Risk Task (BART). Neuroimage 2008;42:902-910.
47. Pagonabarraga J, Garcia-Sanchez C, Llebaria G, Pascual-Sedano B, Gironell A, Kulisevsky J. Controlled study of decision-making and cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2007;22:1430-1435.
48. Kobayakawa M, Koyama S, Mimura M, Kawamura M. Decision making in Parkinson's disease: analysis of behavioral and physiological patterns in the Iowa gambling task. Mov Disord 2008;23:547-552.
49. Bechara A. Risky business: emotion, decision-making, and addiction. J Gambl Stud 2003;19:23-51.
50. Rogers RD, Everitt BJ, Baldacchino A, et al. Dissociable deficits in the decision-making cognition of chronic amphetamine abusers, opiate abusers, patients with focal damage to prefrontal cortex, and tryptophan-depleted normal volunteers: evidence for monoaminergic mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology 1999;20:322-339.
51. Miller LA. Impulsivity, risk-taking, and the ability to synthesize fragmented information after frontal lobectomy. Neuropsychologia 1992;30:69-79.
52. Kagan J. Individual differences in the resolution of response uncertainty. J Pers Soc Psychol 1965;56:154-160.
53. Morgan MJ. Recreational use of ";ecstasy" (MDMA) is associated with elevated impulsivity. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998; 19:252-264.
54. Clark L, Robbins TW, Ersche KD, Sahakian BJ. Reflection impulsivity in current and former substance users. Biol Psychiatry 2006;60:515-522.
55. Reynolds B. A review of delay-discounting research with humans: relations to drug use and gambling. Behav Pharmacol 2006;17:651-667.
56. Alessi SM, Petry NM. Pathological gambling severity is associated with impulsivity in a delay discounting procedure. Behav Processes 2003;64:345-354.
57. Weller RE, Cook EW, III, Avsar KB, Cox JE. Obese women show greater delay discounting than healthy-weight women. Appetite 2008;51:563-569.
58. Hariri AR, Brown SM, Williamson DE, Flory JD, de Wit H, Manuck SB. Preference for immediate over delayed rewards is associated with magnitude of ventral striatal activity. J Neurosci 2006;26:13213-13217.
59. Kacelnik A. Normative and descriptive models of decision making: time discounting and risk sensitivity. Ciba Found Symp 1997;208:51-67; discussion 67-70.
60. Cardinal RN. Neural systems implicated in delayed and probabilistic reinforcement. Neural Netw 2006;19:1277-1301.
61. Cools R, Barker RA, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. L-Dopa medication remediates cognitive inflexibility, but increases impulsivity in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia 2003;41:1431-1441.
62. Rammsayer TH. On dopaminergic modulation of temporal information processing. Biol Psychol 1993;36:209-222.
63. Wild-Wall N, Willemssen R, Falkenstein M, Beste C. Time estimation in healthy ageing and neurodegenerative basal ganglia disorders. Neurosci Lett 2008;442:34-38.
64. Meck WH, Benson AM. Dissecting the brain's internal clock: how frontal-striatal circuitry keeps time and shifts attention. Brain Cogn 2002;48:195-211.
65. Merchant H, Luciana M, Hooper C, Majestic S, Tuite P. Interval timing and Parkinson's disease: heterogeneity in temporal performance. Exp Brain Res 2008;184:233-248.
66. Pastor MA, Artieda J, Jahanshahi M, Obeso JA. Time estimation and reproduction is abnormal in Parkinson's disease. Brain 1992;115 (Part 1):211-225.
67. Malapani C, Rakitin B, Levy R, et al. Coupled temporal memories in Parkinson's disease: a dopamine-related dysfunction. J Cogn Neurosci 1998;10:316-331.
68. Mimura M, Oeda R, Kawamura M. Impaired decision-making in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2006;12: 169-175.
69. Bechara A, Damasio H, Damasio AR, Lee GP. Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. J Neurosci 1999;19:5473-5481.
70. Czernecki V, Pillon B, Houeto JL, Pochon JB, Levy R, Dubois B. Motivation, reward, and Parkinson's disease: influence of dopatherapy. Neuropsychologia 2002;40:2257-2267.
71. Cools R. Dopaminergic modulation of cognitive function-implications for L-DOPA treatment in Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2006;30:1-23.
72. Tobler PN, Fiorillo CD, Schultz W. Adaptive coding of reward value by dopamine neurons. Science 2005;307:1642-1645.
73. Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, Schultz W. Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons. Science 2003;299:1898-1902.
74. Voon V, Fox SH. Medication-related impulse control and repetitive behaviors in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2007;64: 1089-1096.
75. Black KJ, Friedman JH. Repetitive and impulsive behaviors in treated Parkinson disease. Neurology 2006;67:1118-1119.
76. Grant JE, Mancebo MC, Pinto A, Eisen JL, Rasmussen SA. Impulse control disorders in adults with obsessive compulsive disorder. J Psychiatr Res 2006;40:494-501.
77. Brewer JA, Potenza MN. The neurobiology and genetics of impulse control disorders: relationships to drug addictions. Biochem Pharmacol 2008;75:63-75.
78. Grosset KA, Macphee G, Pal G, et al. Problematic gambling on dopamine agonists: not such a rarity. Mov Disord 2006;21: 2206-2208.
79. Drapier D, Drapier S, Sauleau P, et al. Pathological gambling secondary to dopaminergic therapy in Parkinson's disease. Psychiatry Res 2006;144(2-3):241-244.
80. Weintraub D, Siderowf AD, Potenza MN, et al. Association of dopamine agonist use with impulse control disorders in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2006;63:969-973.
81. Pezzella FR, Colosimo C, Vanacore N, et al. Prevalence and clinical features of hedonistic homeostatic dysregulation in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2005;20:77-81.
82. Voon V, Hassan K, Zurowski M, et al. Prevalence of repetitive and reward-seeking behaviors in Parkinson disease. Neurology 2006;67:1254-1257.
83. Isaias IU, Siri C, Cilia R, De Gaspari D, Pezzoli G, Antonini A. The relationship between impulsivity and impulse control disorders in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2008;23:411-415.
84. Crockford D, Quickfall J, Currie S, Furtado S, Suchowersky O, El-Guebaly N. Prevalence of problem and pathological gambling in Parkinson's disease. J Gambl Stud 2008;24:411-422.
85. Ondo WG, Lai D. Predictors of impulsivity and reward seeking behavior with dopamine agonists. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2008;14:28-32.
86. Driver-Dunckley ED, Noble BN, Hentz JG, et al. Gambling and increased sexual desire with dopaminergic medications in restless legs syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol 2007;30:249-255.
87. Quickfall J, Suchowersky O. Pathological gambling associated with dopamine agonist use in restless legs syndrome. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2007;13:535-536.
88. Tippmann-Peikert M, Park JG, Boeve BF, Shepard JW, Silber MH. Pathologic gambling in patients with restless legs syndrome treated with dopaminergic agonists. Neurology 2007;68: 301-303.
89. Petry NM. Pathological gamblers, with and without substance use disorders, discount delayed rewards at high rates. J Abnorm Psychol 2001;110:482-487.
90. Cavedini P, Riboldi G, Keller R, D'Annucci A, Bellodi L. Frontal lobe dysfunction in pathological gambling patients. Biol Psychiatry 2002;51:334-341.
91. Forbush KT, Shaw M, Graeber MA, et al. Neuropsychological characteristics and personality traits in pathological gambling. CNS Spectr 2008;13:306-315.
92. Roca M, Torralva T, Lopez P, Cetkovich M, Clark L, Manes F. Executive functions in pathologic gamblers selected in an ecologic setting. Cogn Behav Neurol 2008;21:1-4.
93. Drapier D, Peron J, Leray E, et al. Emotion recognition impairment and apathy after subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinson's disease have separate neural substrates. Neuropsychologia 2008;46:2796-2801.
94. Temel Y, Kessels A, Tan S, Topdag A, Boon P, Visser-Vandewalle V. Behavioural changes after bilateral subthalamic stimulation in advanced Parkinson disease: a systematic review. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2006;12:265-272.
95. Houeto JL, Mesnage V, Mallet L, et al. Behavioural disorders, Parkinson's disease and subthalamic stimulation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002;72:701-707.
96. Voon V, Krack P, Lang AE, et al. A multicentre study on suicide outcomes following subthalamic stimulation for Parkinson's disease. Brain 2008;131 (Part 10):2720-2728.
97. Uslaner JM, Robinson TE. Subthalamic nucleus lesions increase impulsive action and decrease impulsive choice - mediation by enhanced incentive motivation? Eur J Neurosci 2006;24:2345-2354.
98. Koch G, Brusa L, Caltagirone C, et al. Subthalamic deep brain stimulation improves time perception in Parkinson's disease. Neuroreport 2004;15:1071-1073.
99. Ardouin C, Voon V, Worbe Y, et al. Pathological gambling in Parkinson's disease improves on chronic subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Mov Disord 2006;21:1941-1946.
100. Witjas T, Baunez C, Henry JM, et al. Addiction in Parkinson's disease: impact of subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation. Mov Disord 2005;20:1052-1055.
101. Smeding HM, Goudriaan AE, Foncke EM, Schuurman PR, Speelman JD, Schmand B. Pathological gambling after bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinson disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007;78:517-519.
102. Lu C, Bharmal A, Suchowersky O. Gambling and Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2006;63:298.
103. Halbig TD, Tse W, Frisina PG, et al. Subthalamic deep brain stimulation and impulse control in Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurol 2009;16:493-497.
104. Czernecki V, Pillon B, Houeto JL, et al. Does bilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus aggravate apathy in Parkinson's disease? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005;76:775-779.
105. MacDonald CJ, Meck WH. Differential effects of clozapine and haloperidol on interval timing in the supraseconds range. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005;182:232-244.
106. Cheng RK, MacDonald CJ, Meck WH. Differential effects of cocaine and ketamine on time estimation: implications for neurobiological models of interval timing. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2006;85:114-122.
107. Dagher A, Robbins TW. Personality, addiction, dopamine: insights from Parkinson's disease. Neuron 2009;61:502-510.
108. Dreher JC, Kohn P, Berman KF. Neural coding of distinct statistical properties of reward information in humans. Cereb Cortex 2006;16:561-573.
109. Yacubian J, Glascher J, Schroeder K, Sommer T, Braus DF, Buchel C. Dissociable systems for gain- and loss-related value predictions and errors of prediction in the human brain. J Neurosci 2006;26:9530-9537.
110. Cools R, Lewis SJ, Clark L, Barker RA, Robbins TW. L-DOPA disrupts activity in the nucleus accumbens during reversal learning in Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007;32:180-189.
111. Davis C, Levitan RD, Kaplan AS, et al. Reward sensitivity and the D2 dopamine receptor gene: a case-control study of binge eating disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008;32:620-628.
112. Comings DE, Blum K. Reward de.ciency syndrome: genetic aspects of behavioral disorders. Prog Brain Res 2000;126:325-341.
113. Bowirrat A, Oscar-Berman M. Relationship between dopaminergic neurotransmission, alcoholism, and Reward De.ciency syndrome. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2005; 132B:29-37.
114. Reuter J, Raedler T, Rose M, Hand I, Glascher J, Buchel C. Pathological gambling is linked to reduced activation of the mesolimbic reward system. Nat Neurosci 2005;8:147-148.
115. Riba J, Kramer UM, Heldmann M, Richter S, Munte TF. Dopamine agonist increases risk taking but blunts reward-related brain activity. PLoS ONE 2008;3:e2479.
116. Forbes EE, Brown SM, Kimak M, Ferrell RE, Manuck SB, Hariri AR. Genetic variation in components of dopamine neurotransmission impacts ventral striatal reactivity associated with impulsivity. Mol Psychiatry 2009;14:60-70.
117. Zack M, Poulos CX. Amphetamine primes motivation to gamble and gambling-related semantic networks in problem gamblers. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004;29:195-207.
118. Heinz A, Siessmeier T, Wrase J, et al. Correlation between dopamine D(2) receptors in the ventral striatum and central processing of alcohol cues and craving. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161: 1783-1789.
119. Dalley JW, Fryer TD, Brichard L, et al. Nucleus accumbens D2/3 receptors predict trait impulsivity and cocaine reinforcement. Science 2007;315:1267-1270.
120. Tuppurainen H, Kuikka JT, Laakso MP, Viinamaki H, Husso M, Tiihonen J. Midbrain dopamine D2/3 receptor binding in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006;256: 382-387.
121. Wong DF, Brasic JR, Singer HS, et al. Mechanisms of dopaminergic and serotonergic neurotransmission in Tourette syndrome: clues from an in vivo neurochemistry study with PET. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008;33:1239-1251.
122. Dodd ML, Klos KJ, Bower JH, Geda YE, Josephs KA, Ahlskog JE. Pathological gambling caused by drugs used to treat Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2005;62:1377-1381.
123. Black KJ, Hershey T, Koller JM, et al. A possible substrate for dopamine-related changes in mood and behavior: prefrontal and limbic effects of a D3-preferring dopamine agonist. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:17113-17118.
124. Cassano P, Lattanzi L, Soldani F, et al. Pramipexole in treatment-resistant depression: an extended follow-up. Depress Anxiety 2004;20:131-138.
125. Pizzagalli DA, Evins AE, Schetter EC, et al. Single dose of a dopamine agonist impairs reinforcement learning in humans: behavioral evidence from a laboratory-based measure of reward responsiveness. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008;196: 221-232.
126. Chernoloz O, El Mansari M, Blier P. Sustained administration of pramipexole modifies the spontaneous firing of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin neurons in the rat brain. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009;34:651-661.
127. White TL, Lejuez CW, de Wit H. Personality and gender differences in effects of D-amphetamine on risk taking. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2007;15:599-609.