Emergency treatment options for pediatric traumatic brain injury

Pediatric Health

Volumn 3, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 533-541

  Exo, J ^a   Smith, C ^a   Smith, R ^a   Bell, M J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

Author keywords

Barbiturate therapy; Children; Hyperosmolar therapy; Hyperventilation; Traumatic brain injury

Indexed keywords

BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; MANNITOL; PENTOBARBITAL;

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; BRAIN PERFUSION; CENTRAL VENOUS PRESSURE; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID DRAINAGE; CHILD; DECOMPRESSION SURGERY; DIURESIS; EMERGENCY TREATMENT; FLUID RESUSCITATION; HEAD POSITION; HUMAN; HYPEROSMOLAR THERAPY; INDUCED HYPOTHERMIA; INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE; KIDNEY FAILURE; MEAN ARTERIAL PRESSURE; NEUROPROTECTION; OXYGEN SATURATION; OXYGEN TISSUE LEVEL; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; THERAPEUTIC HYPERVENTILATION; THERAPY; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

EID: 73949084379     PISSN: 17455111     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/phe.09.54     Document Type: Review

References (51)

1. Kung HC, Hoyert DL, Xu J et al.: Deaths: fnal data for 2005. National Vital Statistics Reports 56 (10), 1-121 (2008).
2. Luerssen TG, Klauber MR, Marshall LF: Outcome from head injury related to patient's age. A longitudinal prospective study of adult and pediatric head injury. J. Neurosurg. 68 (3), 409-416 (1988).
3. Cohadon F, Richer E, Castel JP: Head injuries: incidence and outcome. J. Neurol. Sci. 103 (Suppl.) S27-S31 (1991).
4. Frankowski R, Annegers J, Whitman S: Epidemiology and descriptive studies. Part 1. The descriptive epidemiology of head trauma in the United States. In: Central Nervous System Trauma Status Report-1985. Becker DP and Povlishock J (Eds). NIH, NINDS, Bethesda, MD, USA 33-43 (1985).
5. Adelson PD, Bratton SL, Carney NA et al.: Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatr. Crit. Care M Ed. 4 (3 Suppl.) S1-S73 (2003). ••The most recent version of comprehensive guidelines for the management of children after severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) - a revision of these guidelines is now ongoing and expected to be published within several months.
6. Cooper A, DiScala C, Foltin G et al.: Prehospital endotracheal intubation for severe head injury in children: a reappraisal. Semin. Pediatr. Surg. 10 (1), 3-6 (2001).
7. Murray JA, DemetriadesD, Berne TV et al.: Prehospital intubation in patients with severe head injury. J. Trauma 49 (6), 1065-1070 (2000).
8. Stocchetti N, Furlan A, Volta F: Hypoxemia and arterial hypotension at the accident scene in head injury. J. Trauma 40 (5), 764-767 (1996).
9. Winchell RJ, Hoyt DB: Endotracheal intubation in the feld improves survival in patients with severe head injury. Trauma Research and Education Foundation of San Diego. Arch. Surg. 132 (6), 592-597 (1997).
10. Stiefel MF, Udoetuk JD, Spiotta AM et al.: Conventional neurocritical care and cerebral oxygenation after traumatic brain injury. J. Neurosurg. 105 (4), 568-575 (2006). •One of the first articles to indicate that threshold values for brain tissue oxygen tension may be associated with improved outcome.
11. Chaiwat O, Sharma D, Udomphorn Y et al.: Cerebral hemodynamic predictors of poor 6-month Glasgow Outcome Score in severe pediatric traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma 26 (5), 657-663 (2009).
12. Pigula FA, Wald SL, Shackford SR et al.: The effect of hypotension and hypoxia on children with severe head injuries. J. Pediatr. Surg. 28 (3), 310-314; discussion 315-316 (2003).
13. Zebrack M, Dandoy C, Hansen K et al.: Early resuscitation of children with moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury Pediatrics 124 (1), 56-64 (2009).
14. Downard C, Hulka F, Mullins RJ et al.: Relationship of cerebral perfusion pressure and survival in pediatric brain-injured patients. J. Trauma 49 (4), 654-658; discussion 658-659 (2000).
15. 2' cerebral perfusion pressure and intracranial pressure in patients with acute brain injury. Neurol. Res. 19 (3), 249-253 (1997).
16. Polin RS, Shaffrey ME, Bogaev CA et al.: Decompressive bifrontal craniectomy in the treatment of severe refractory posttraumatic cerebral edema. Neurosurgery 41 (1), 84-92; discussion 92-94 (1997).
17. Taylor A, Butt W, Rosenfeld J et al.: A randomized trial of very early decompressive craniectomy in children with traumatic brain injury and sustained intracranial hypertension. Childs. Nerv. Syst. 17 (3), 154-162 (2001).
18. Shapiro K Marmarou A: Clinical applications of the pressure-volume index in treatment of pediatric head injuries. J. Neurosurg. 56 (6), 819-825 (1982).
19. James HE, Langftt TW, Kumar VS: Analysis of the response to therapeutic measures to reduce intracranial pressure in head injured patients. J. Trauma 16 (6), 437-441 (1976).
20. Fortune JB et al.: Effect of hyperventilation, mannitol, and ventriculostomy drainage on cerebral blood fow after head injury J. Trauma 39 (6), 1091-1097; discussion 1097-1099 (1995).
21. Jagannathan J, Feustel PJ, Graca L et al.: Long-term outcomes and prognostic factors in pediatric patients with severe traumatic brain injury and elevated intracranial pressure. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2 (4), 240-249 (2008).
22. Levy DI, Rekate HL, Cherny WB et al.: Controlled lumbar drainage in pediatric head injury. J. Neurosurg. 83 (3), 453-460 (1995).
23. Adelson PD, Clyde B, Kochanek PM et al.: Cerebrovascular response in infants and young children following severe traumatic brain injury: a preliminary report. Pediatr. Neurosurg. 26 (4), 200-207 (1997).
24. 2-monitoring in comatose patients: implications for therapy. Neurol. Res. 19 (3), 233-240 (1997).
25. Muizelaar JP, Marmarou A, Ward JD et al.: Adverse effects of prolonged hyperventilation in patients with severe head injury: a randomized clinical trial. J. Neurosurg. 75 (5), 731-739 (1991).
26. Schneider GH, von Helden A, Lanksch WR et al.: Continuous monitoring of jugular bulb oxygen saturation in comatose patients - therapeutic implications. Acta Neurochir. (Wien) 134 (1-2), 71-75 (1995).
27. von Helden A, Schneider GH, Unterberg A et al.: Monitoring of jugular venous oxygen saturation in comatose patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage and intracerebral haematomas. Acta Neurochir. Suppl. (Wien) 59, 102-106 (1993).
28. James HE: Methodology for the control of intracranial pressure with hypertonic mannitol. Acta Neurochir. (Wien) 51 (3-4), 161-172 (1980).
29. Mendelow AD, Teasdale GM, Russell T et al.: Effect of mannitol on cerebral blood fow and cerebral perfusion pressure in human head injury. J. Neurosurg. 1985. 63 (1), 43-48.
30. Kasoff SS, Lansen TA, Holder D et al.: Aggressive physiologic monitoring of pediatric head trauma patients with elevated intracranial pressure. Pediatr. Neuro Sci. 14 (5), 241-249 (1988).
31. Kerwin AJ, Schinco MA, Tepas JJ 3rd et al.: The use of 23.4% hypertonic saline for the management of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: a pilot study. J. Trauma. 67 (2), 277-282 (2009).
32. Suarez JI, Qureshi AI, Bhardwaj A et al.: Treatment of refractory intracranial hypertension with 23.4% saline. Crit. Care M Ed. 26 (6), 1118-1122 (1998).
33. Simma B, Burger R, Falk M et al.: A prospective, randomized, and controlled study of fuid management in children with severe head injury: lactated Ringer's solution versus hypertonic saline. Crit. Care M Ed. 26 (7), 1265-1270 (1998).
34. Peterson B, Khanna S, Fisher B et al.: Prolonged hypernatremia controls elevated intracranial pressure in head-injured pediatric patients. Crit. Care M Ed. 28 (4), 1136-1143 (2000).
35. Khanna S, Davis D, Peterson B et al.: Use of hypertonic saline in the treatment of severe refractory posttraumatic intracranial hypertension in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Crit. Care M Ed. 28 (4), 1144-1151 (2000).
36. Fisher B, Thomas D, Peterson B: Hypertonic saline lowers raised intracranial pressure in children after head trauma. J. Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 4 (1), 4-10 (1992).
37. Demopoulos HB, Flamm ES, Pietronigro DD et al.: The free radical pathology and the microcirculation in the major central nervous system disorders. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 492, 91-119 (1980).
38. Kassell NF, Hitchon PW, Gerk MK et al.: Alterations in cerebral blood fow, oxygen metabolism, and electrical activity produced by high dose sodium thiopental. Neurosurgery 7 (6), 598-603 (1980).
39. Piatt JH Jr, Schiff SJ: High dose barbiturate therapy in neurosurgery and intensive care. Neurosurgery 15 (3), 427-444 (1984).
40. Eisenberg HM, Frankowski RF, Contant CF et al.: High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury. J. Neurosurg. 69 (1), 15-23 (1988).
41. Chen HI, Malhotra NR, Oddo M et al.: Barbiturate infusion for intractable intracranial hypertension and its effect on brain oxygenation. Neurosurgery 63 (5), 880-886; discussion 886-887 (2008).
42. Goodman JC, Valadka AB, Gopinath SP et al.: Lactate and excitatory amino acids measured by microdialysis are decreased by pentobarbital coma in head-injured patients. J. Neurotrauma 13 (10), 549-556 (1996). •One of the first studies demonstrating biochemical effectiveness of a neurological therapy in real time.
43. Pittman T, Bucholz R, Williams D: Effcacy of barbiturates in the treatment of resistant intracranial hypertension in severely head-injured children. Pediatr. Neuro Sci. 15 (1), 13-17 (1989).
44. Bernard SA, Gray T W, Buist MD et al.: Treatment of comatose survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with induced hypothermia. N. Engl. J. M Ed. 346 (8), 557-563 (2002).
45. Shankaran S, Laptook AR, Ehrenkranz RA et al.: Whole-body hypothermia for neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. N. Engl. J. M Ed. 353 (15), 1574-1584 (2005).
46. Schreckinger M, Marion DW: contemporary management of traumatic intracranial hypertension: is there a role for therapeutic hypothermia? Neurocrit. Care (2009).
47. Clifton GL, Miller ER, Choi SC et al.: Lack of effect of induction of hypothermia after acute brain injury. N. Engl. J. M Ed. 344 (8), 556-563 (2001).
48. Zhi D, Zhang S, Lin X: Study on therapeutic mechanism and clinical effect of mild hypothermia in patients with severe head injury. Surg. Neurol. 59 (5), 381-385 (2003).
49. Adelson PD, Ragheb J, Kanev P et al.: Phase II clinical trial of moderate hypothermia after severe traumatic brain injury in children. Neurosurgery 56 (4), 740-754; discussion 740-754 (2005).
50. Marion DW, Penrod LE, Kelsey SF et al.: Treatment of traumatic brain injury with moderate hypothermia. N. Engl. J. M Ed. 336 (8), 540-546 (1997). •One of the first studies demonstrating a beneficial effect of hypothermia after TBI in adults; largely credited with starting the systematic evaluation of hypothermia as a therapy for TBI.
51. Hutchison JS, Ward RE, Lacroix J et al.: Hypothermia therapy after traumatic brain injury in children. N. Engl. J. M Ed. 358 (23), 2447-2456 (2008). •Large study demonstrating potential harm of hypothermia after TBI in children. It has been criticized because many children required vasopressors during rewarming, which may have led to decreased blood pressure and poorer outcomes. Remains the largest randomized, controlled trial of hypothermia for children to date.