Adolescent consent and confi dentiality in the UK

European Journal of Health Law

Volumn 16, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 309-331

  Cave, Emma ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Axon; Children; Confi dentiality; Consent; Gillick; Privacy

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ARTICLE; CONFIDENTIALITY; HUMAN; INFORMED CONSENT; JUVENILE; LEGAL ASPECT; UNITED KINGDOM;

ADOLESCENT; CONFIDENTIALITY; GREAT BRITAIN; HUMANS; INFORMED CONSENT; MINORS;

EID: 73349134687     PISSN: 09290273     EISSN: 15718093     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/092902709X12506817652775     Document Type: Article

References (216)

1. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, Oviedo, 4. IV.1997.
2. European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, Article 6(2).
3. Archard, D.W., Children, Family and the State, Surray: Ashgate, 2003, 4.
4. Eekelaar, J., "The Emergence of Children's Rights", Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 6 (2) (1986), 161.
5. Bridgeman, J. Parental Responsibility, Young Children and Healthcare Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 21.
6. Herring, J., "Relational Autonomy and Family Law" in: J. Wallbank, S. Choudhry, J. Herring (eds.) Rights, Gender and Family Law, London: Routledge-Cavendish, 2009, chapter 12.
7. Fortin, J. Children's Rights and the Developing Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 57.
8. Art 87(3) Health Act, Bulgaria: Goffin, T. , D. Zinovieva, P. Borry, K. Dierickx, H. Nys, "Patient Rights in the EU - Bulgaria." European Ethical-Legal Papers N o 8, Leuven, 2007, 24. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.eurogentest.org/patient/info/public/unit4/ethical-legal-papers. xhtml#legal-8;
9. Article 13 (3) of the Patient Rights Act: Goffin, T., et al., "Patient Rights in the EU - Cyprus", European Ethical-Legal Papers No 10, Leuven, 2007, 16. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.eurogentest.org/ patient/info/pub-lic/unit4/ethical-legal-papers.xhtml#legal-8.
10. Stultiens, L., T. Goffin, P. Borry, K. Dierickx, H. Nys, "Minors and Informed Consent: A Comparative Approach" European Journal of Health Law, 14 (2007), 21, p.39.
11. Family Law Reform Act 1969, s 8 (1) 'The consent of a minor who has attained the age of 16 years to any surgical, medical or dental treatment which, in the absence of consent, would constitute a trespass to his person, shall be as effective as it would be if he were of full age; and where a minor has by virtue of this section given an effective consent to any treatment it shall not be necessary to obtain any consent for it from his parent or guardian.'
12. [1986] AC 112.
13. Ibid., 171, per Lord Fraser.
14. Gillick, ibid., 188-189 per Lord Scarman: 'It will be a question of fact whether a child seeking advice has sufficient understanding of what is involved to give a consent valid in law.'
15. Gillick, ibid., 186.
16. [2006] EWHC 37 (Admin).
17. Chester v Afshar [2004] UKHL 41, at 24, per Lord Steyn, 'I have come to the conclusion that, as a result of the surgeon's failure to warn the patient, [Miss Chester] cannot be said to have given informed consent to the surgery in the full legal sense. Her right of autonomy and dignity can and ought to be vindicated by a narrow and modest departure from traditional causation principles.'
18. Taylor, R., "Reversing the retreat from Gillick? R (Axon) v Secretary of State for Health" Child and Family Law Quarterly, 19 (1) (2007), 81.
19. Gillick, supra n. 11, 174: '(1) that the girl (although under 16 years of age) will understand his advice; (2) that he cannot persuade her to inform her parents or to allow him to inform the parents that she is seeking contraceptive advice; (3) that she is very likely to begin or to continue having sexual intercourse with or without contraceptive treatment; (4) that unless she receives contraceptive advice or treatment her physical or mental health or both are likely to suffer; (5) that her best interests require him to give her contraceptive advice, treatment or both without the parental consent.'
20. Mental Capacity Act 2005, s. 1(2) 'A person must be assumed to have capacity unless it is established that he lacks capacity.'
21. Taylor, R., supra, n. 17.
22. Department of Health, Best Practice Guidance for Doctors and Other Health Professional on the Provision of Advice and Treatment to Young People under Sixteen on Contraception, Sexual and Reproductive Health, London: Department of Health, 2004.
23. Axon, supra, n. 15, 132.
24. General Medical Council, 0-18: Guidance for all Doctors, London: GMC, 2007, para 12(a).
25. Children Act 1989, s. 1(1) 'When a court determines any question with respect to- (a) the upbringing of a child; or (b) the administration of a child's property or the application of any income arising from it, the child's welfare shall be the court's paramount consideration.' Treatment decisions relate to upbringing which is defined in s. 105 as 'the care of the child but not his maintenance'.
26. For example, Choudhry, S., H. Fenwick, "Taking the Rights of Parents and Children Seriously: Confronting the Welfare Principle under the Human Rights Act" Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 25 (2005), 253.
27. Ibid,.
28. See Hall, A., "Children's Rights, Parents' Wishes and the State: The Medical Treatment of Children" Family Law 36 (2006), 317.
29. (1988) 11 EHRR 175.
30. Axon, supra n. 15, [126]. Silber J. reasoned that Neilsen was brought under Article 5 and not Article 8.
31. [2005] EWCA Civ. 634. Discussed in Fortin, J., "Children's Rights - Substance or Spin?" Family Law 36 (2006), 757.
32. Perera, A., "The State of Children's Consent in the UK" European Journal of Health Law 15 (4) (2008), 411.
33. Taylor, R., supra, n.17.
34. Hall, A., supra, n. 27.
35. Fortin, J,. supra, n. 30.
36. Axon, supra, n.15, 135. Hall, A., supra, n. 27 finds this alternative reasoning more compelling.
37. Axon, supra, n. 15, 141-148.
38. (2003) 36 EHRR 345. See also Johansen v Norway (1996) 23 EHRR 33 and Hoppe v Germand [2003] 1 FCR 176.
39. Axon, supra, n. 15, 144-146.
40. Fortin, J., supra, n. 30.
41. Following the reasoning in Paton v UK (1980) 3 EHRR 408 where the husband's Article 8 rights were subordinate to his wife's.
42. Eekelaar, J., supra, n. 41, pp. 180-182.
43. See for example Bainham, A., "The Judge and the Competent Minor" Law Quarterly Review 108 (1992), 194.
44. Eekelaar, J., supra, n. 41, 182.
45. Brazier M., C. Bridge, "Coercion or Caring: Analysing Adolescent Autonomy" Legal Studies 16 (1996), 84.
46. Re R (A Minor) (Wardship: Consent to Medical Treatment) [1991] 4 All ER 177 at 185.
47. Re W (A Minor) (Medical Treatment) [1993] Fam. 64 per Nolan J at 94 the minor's refusal should be overruled if 'the child's welfare is threatened by a serious and imminent risk that the child will suffer grave and irreversible mental or physical harm'. Per Balcomble LJ at 88 the minor's refusal should be overruled if it 'will in all probability lead to the death of the child or grave permanent injury'.
48. Re M (Medical Treatment: Consent) [1999] 2 FLR 1097.
49. [1993] Fam. 64.
50. Brazier M., C. Bridge, supra, n. 44.
51. Brazier M., C Bridge, ibid., 87.
52. Herring J., (ed.), Family Law: Issues, Debates, Policy, London: Willan Publishing, 2001, 152. Others are more vehement in their response. For example, J. Harris, "Consent and End of Life Decisions" Journal of Medical Ethics 29 (2003), 12: 'The idea that a child (or anyone) might competently consent to a treatment but not be competent to refuse it is palpable nonsense . . . there cannot be things that we are competent to do but not competent to refuse to do.'
53. Re P (Medical Treatment: Best Interests) [2003] EWHC 2327 (Fam.).
54. See G. Douglas, "Case Report -Medical Treatment" Family Law [2004] 716.
55. Re P, ibid., 11.
56. Re P, ibid., 9.
57. Midgley, Carol. 2008. "Doctors Fear Hannah Jones Case may Blight Heart Swaps" The Times, November 15.
58. Grice, E. 2008. "Hannah Jones: 'I Have Been in Hospital too Much'" The Telegraph, November 12.
59. See for example the Children's Legal Centre website which says that Hannah 'won the right to refuse a heart transplant that could have saved her life'. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.childrenslegalcentre.com/Legal+Advice/ Child+law/Youngpeopleandmedicaltreatment/Canayoungpersonrefusemedical treatment.htm
60. Axon, supra, n. 15, 56.
61. And potentially Articles 9 and 14.
62. Taylor, R., supra, n. 17.
63. Report 119 (2008) Young People and Consent to Health Care, tabled in the Legislative Assembly, 24 March 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lawlink/lrc/ll-lrc.nsf/pages/ LRC-r119toc.
64. Report 119, ibid., recommendation 4.
65. Elliston, S., The Best Interests of the Child in Health Care, New York: Routledge-Cavendish, 2007, 114. Indeed, the GMC, supra, n. 23, para. 28(d) states: 'In Scotland parents cannot authorise treatment a competent young person has refused.'
66. Elliston, S., ibid.
67. Herring, J., Family Law, London: Pearson Longman, 2007, pp. 263-264.
68. (1969) 12 Y.B. 1 at [186].
69. (2005) 19 BHRC 177.
70. Fortin, J., supra, n. 7, 113.
71. Taylor, R., supra, n. 17.
72. Fortin J., supra, n. 7, 55.
73. Hall, A., supra, n. 27.
74. Choudhury S., H.M. Fenwick, supra, n. 25, 479 argue that the paramountcy principle enshrined in the Children Act 1989 is incompatible with the European Convention. 'Paramountcy', they argue, should be replaced with a concept of 'primacy' so as to ensure the appropriate balancing of family rights.
75. Campbell v MGN [2004] UKHL 22.
76. Axon supra, n. 15, 64, per Silber J.
77. See for example I. Kennedy Treat Me Right, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988, 114.
78. At 130.
79. At 132.
80. Gillick, supra, n. 11, 189 C-D.
81. Axon, supra, n. 15, 130.
82. Loughrey, J., "Can you Keep a Secret?" Child and Family Law Quarterly 20 (3) (2008), 312.
83. [2008] EWCA Civ. 446.
84. Loughrey, J., supra, n. 80.
85. EuroGentest project website, co-ordinated by the Centre for Biomedical Ethics and Law at the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://europatientrights.eu/countries/signed/ finland/finland-right-to- informed-consent-minors.html.
86. Planned Parenthood of South East Pennsylvania v Casey 505 U.S. 833 (1992) referred to by Silber J. in Axon, supra, n. 15, 32.
87. Nys, H., et al., "Patient Rights in the EU - Denmark", European Ethical-Legal Papers N o2, Leuven, 2007, 16. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.eurogentest.org/patient/info/public/unit4/ethical-legal- papers.xhtml#legal-8.
88. Article 6(8) Law on the Rights of Patients, Lithuania: L. Stultiens, et al., supra, n. 9, 32.
89. Stultiens, L. et al., ibid., 38.
90. GMC supra, n. 23, para 47.
91. Loughrey, J., supra, n. 80.
92. Mental Capacity Act 2005, s. 2(1).
93. Mental Capacity Act 2005, s. 2(3)(a).
94. EuroGentest project website, supra, n. 85, Belgium. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://europatientrights. eu/countries/not-ratified-not-signed/ belgium/belgium-right-to-informed-consent-minors.html.
95. EuroGentest project website, ibid., retrieved 29 July 2009. http://europatientrights.eu/countries/signed/finland/finland-right-to-informed- consent-minors.html
96. Article 9, Czech Civil Code: L. Stultiens, et al., supra, n. 9, 24.
97. Ibid., 26.
98. Brazier M., C. Bridge, supra, n. 44;
99. R. Taylor, supra, n. 17.
100. Harris J., The Value of Life, London: Routledge, 1995, pp. 195-205.
101. Brazier, M., C. Bridge, supra, n. 44, 109.
102. Taylor, R., supra, n. 17.
103. For example Canada, Ontario, Health Care Consent Act 1996, s. 4(2).
104. See Report 119, supra, n. 61, para. 5.26.
105. [1993] 1 FLR 386.
106. [1998] Fam. Law 591.
107. Axon, supra, n. 15 per Silber J., at 2.
108. Fortin, J., "Accommodating Children's Rights in a Post Human Rights Act Era", Modern Law Review 69 (3) (2006), 299, 311.
109. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, Oviedo, 4. IV.1997.
110. European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, Article 6(2).
111. Archard, D.W., Children, Family and the State, Surray: Ashgate, 2003, 4.
112. Eekelaar, J., "The Emergence of Children's Rights", Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 6 (2) (1986), 161.
113. Bridgeman, J. Parental Responsibility, Young Children and Healthcare Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 21.
114. Herring, J., "Relational Autonomy and Family Law" in: J. Wallbank, S. Choudhry, J. Herring (eds.) Rights, Gender and Family Law, London: Routledge-Cavendish, 2009, chapter 12.
115. Fortin, J. Children's Rights and the Developing Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 57.
116. Art 87(3) Health Act, Bulgaria: Goffin, T. , D. Zinovieva, P. Borry, K. Dierickx, H. Nys, "Patient Rights in the EU - Bulgaria." European Ethical-Legal Papers N o 8, Leuven, 2007, 24. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.eurogentest.org/patient/info/public/unit4/ethical-legal-papers. xhtml#legal-8;
117. Article 13 (3) of the Patient Rights Act: Goffin, T., et al., "Patient Rights in the EU - Cyprus", European Ethical-Legal Papers No 10, Leuven, 2007, 16. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.eurogentest.org/ patient/info/pub-lic/unit4/ethical-legal-papers.xhtml#legal-8.
118. Stultiens, L., T. Goffin, P. Borry, K. Dierickx, H. Nys, "Minors and Informed Consent: A Comparative Approach" European Journal of Health Law, 14 (2007), 21, p.39.
119. Family Law Reform Act 1969, s 8 (1) 'The consent of a minor who has attained the age of 16 years to any surgical, medical or dental treatment which, in the absence of consent, would constitute a trespass to his person, shall be as effective as it would be if he were of full age; and where a minor has by virtue of this section given an effective consent to any treatment it shall not be necessary to obtain any consent for it from his parent or guardian.'
120. [1986] AC 112.
121. Ibid., 171, per Lord Fraser.
122. Gillick, ibid., 188-189 per Lord Scarman: 'It will be a question of fact whether a child seeking advice has sufficient understanding of what is involved to give a consent valid in law.'
123. Gillick, ibid., 186.
124. [2006] EWHC 37 (Admin).
125. Chester v Afshar [2004] UKHL 41, at 24, per Lord Steyn, 'I have come to the conclusion that, as a result of the surgeon's failure to warn the patient, [Miss Chester] cannot be said to have given informed consent to the surgery in the full legal sense. Her right of autonomy and dignity can and ought to be vindicated by a narrow and modest departure from traditional causation principles.'
126. Taylor, R., "Reversing the retreat from Gillick? R (Axon) v Secretary of State for Health" Child and Family Law Quarterly, 19 (1) (2007), 81.
127. Gillick, supra n. 11, 174: '(1) that the girl (although under 16 years of age) will understand his advice; (2) that he cannot persuade her to inform her parents or to allow him to inform the parents that she is seeking contraceptive advice; (3) that she is very likely to begin or to continue having sexual intercourse with or without contraceptive treatment; (4) that unless she receives contraceptive advice or treatment her physical or mental health or both are likely to suffer; (5) that her best interests require him to give her contraceptive advice, treatment or both without the parental consent.'
128. Mental Capacity Act 2005, s. 1(2) 'A person must be assumed to have capacity unless it is established that he lacks capacity.'
129. Taylor, R., supra, n. 17.
130. Department of Health, Best Practice Guidance for Doctors and Other Health Professional on the Provision of Advice and Treatment to Young People under Sixteen on Contraception, Sexual and Reproductive Health, London: Department of Health, 2004.
131. Axon, supra, n. 15, 132.
132. General Medical Council, 0-18: Guidance for all Doctors, London: GMC, 2007, para 12(a).
133. Children Act 1989, s. 1(1) 'When a court determines any question with respect to- (a) the upbringing of a child; or (b) the administration of a child's property or the application of any income arising from it, the child's welfare shall be the court's paramount consideration.' Treatment decisions relate to upbringing which is defined in s. 105 as 'the care of the child but not his maintenance'.
134. For example, Choudhry, S., H. Fenwick, "Taking the Rights of Parents and Children Seriously: Confronting the Welfare Principle under the Human Rights Act" Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 25 (2005), 253.
135. Ibid,.
136. See Hall, A., "Children's Rights, Parents' Wishes and the State: The Medical Treatment of Children" Family Law 36 (2006), 317.
137. (1988) 11 EHRR 175.
138. Axon, supra n. 15, [126]. Silber J. reasoned that Neilsen was brought under Article 5 and not Article 8.
139. [2005] EWCA Civ. 634. Discussed in Fortin, J., "Children's Rights - Substance or Spin?" Family Law 36 (2006), 757.
140. Perera, A., "The State of Children's Consent in the UK" European Journal of Health Law 15 (4) (2008), 411.
141. Taylor, R., supra, n.17.
142. Hall, A., supra, n. 27.
143. Fortin, J,. supra, n. 30.
144. Axon, supra, n.15, 135. Hall, A., supra, n. 27 finds this alternative reasoning more compelling.
145. Axon, supra, n. 15, 141-148.
146. (2003) 36 EHRR 345. See also Johansen v Norway (1996) 23 EHRR 33 and Hoppe v Germand [2003] 1 FCR 176.
147. Axon, supra, n. 15, 144-146.
148. Fortin, J., supra, n. 30.
149. Following the reasoning in Paton v UK (1980) 3 EHRR 408 where the husband's Article 8 rights were subordinate to his wife's.
150. Eekelaar, J., supra, n. 41, pp. 180-182.
151. See for example Bainham, A., "The Judge and the Competent Minor" Law Quarterly Review 108 (1992), 194.
152. Eekelaar, J., supra, n. 41, 182.
153. Brazier M., C. Bridge, "Coercion or Caring: Analysing Adolescent Autonomy" Legal Studies 16 (1996), 84.
154. Re R (A Minor) (Wardship: Consent to Medical Treatment) [1991] 4 All ER 177 at 185.
155. Re W (A Minor) (Medical Treatment) [1993] Fam. 64 per Nolan J at 94 the minor's refusal should be overruled if 'the child's welfare is threatened by a serious and imminent risk that the child will suffer grave and irreversible mental or physical harm'. Per Balcomble LJ at 88 the minor's refusal should be overruled if it 'will in all probability lead to the death of the child or grave permanent injury'.
156. Re M (Medical Treatment: Consent) [1999] 2 FLR 1097.
157. [1993] Fam. 64.
158. Brazier M., C. Bridge, supra, n. 44.
159. Brazier M., C Bridge, ibid., 87.
160. Herring J., (ed.), Family Law: Issues, Debates, Policy, London: Willan Publishing, 2001, 152. Others are more vehement in their response. For example, J. Harris, "Consent and End of Life Decisions" Journal of Medical Ethics 29 (2003), 12: 'The idea that a child (or anyone) might competently consent to a treatment but not be competent to refuse it is palpable nonsense . . . there cannot be things that we are competent to do but not competent to refuse to do.'
161. Re P (Medical Treatment: Best Interests) [2003] EWHC 2327 (Fam.).
162. See G. Douglas, "Case Report -Medical Treatment" Family Law [2004] 716.
163. Re P, ibid., 11.
164. Re P, ibid., 9.
165. Midgley, Carol. 2008. "Doctors Fear Hannah Jones Case may Blight Heart Swaps" The Times, November 15.
166. Grice, E. 2008. "Hannah Jones: 'I Have Been in Hospital too Much'" The Telegraph, November 12.
167. See for example the Children's Legal Centre website which says that Hannah 'won the right to refuse a heart transplant that could have saved her life'. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.childrenslegalcentre.com/Legal+Advice/ Child+law/Youngpeopleandmedicaltreatment/Canayoungpersonrefusemedical treatment.htm
168. Axon, supra, n. 15, 56.
169. And potentially Articles 9 and 14.
170. Taylor, R., supra, n. 17.
171. Report 119 (2008) Young People and Consent to Health Care, tabled in the Legislative Assembly, 24 March 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lawlink/lrc/ll-lrc.nsf/pages/ LRC-r119toc.
172. Report 119, ibid., recommendation 4.
173. Elliston, S., The Best Interests of the Child in Health Care, New York: Routledge-Cavendish, 2007, 114. Indeed, the GMC, supra, n. 23, para. 28(d) states: 'In Scotland parents cannot authorise treatment a competent young person has refused.'
174. Elliston, S., ibid.
175. Herring, J., Family Law, London: Pearson Longman, 2007, pp. 263-264.
176. (1969) 12 Y.B. 1 at [186].
177. (2005) 19 BHRC 177.
178. Fortin, J., supra, n. 7, 113.
179. Taylor, R., supra, n. 17.
180. Fortin J., supra, n. 7, 55.
181. Hall, A., supra, n. 27.
182. Choudhury S., H.M. Fenwick, supra, n. 25, 479 argue that the paramountcy principle enshrined in the Children Act 1989 is incompatible with the European Convention. 'Paramountcy', they argue, should be replaced with a concept of 'primacy' so as to ensure the appropriate balancing of family rights.
183. Campbell v MGN [2004] UKHL 22.
184. Axon supra, n. 15, 64, per Silber J.
185. See for example I. Kennedy Treat Me Right, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988, 114.
186. At 130.
187. At 132.
188. Gillick, supra, n. 11, 189 C-D.
189. Axon, supra, n. 15, 130.
190. Loughrey, J., "Can you Keep a Secret?" Child and Family Law Quarterly 20 (3) (2008), 312.
191. [2008] EWCA Civ. 446.
192. Loughrey, J., supra, n. 80.
193. EuroGentest project website, co-ordinated by the Centre for Biomedical Ethics and Law at the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://europatientrights.eu/countries/signed/ finland/finland-right-to- informed-consent-minors.html.
194. Planned Parenthood of South East Pennsylvania v Casey 505 U.S. 833 (1992) referred to by Silber J. in Axon, supra, n. 15, 32.
195. Nys, H., et al., "Patient Rights in the EU - Denmark", European Ethical-Legal Papers N o2, Leuven, 2007, 16. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://www.eurogentest.org/patient/info/public/unit4/ethical-legal- papers.xhtml#legal-8.
196. Article 6(8) Law on the Rights of Patients, Lithuania: L. Stultiens, et al., supra, n. 9, 32.
197. Stultiens, L. et al., ibid., 38.
198. GMC supra, n. 23, para 47.
199. Loughrey, J., supra, n. 80.
200. Mental Capacity Act 2005, s. 2(1).
201. Mental Capacity Act 2005, s. 2(3)(a).
202. EuroGentest project website, supra, n. 85, Belgium. Retrieved 29 July 2009. http://europatientrights. eu/countries/not-ratified-not-signed/ belgium/belgium-right-to-informed-consent-minors.html.
203. EuroGentest project website, ibid., retrieved 29 July 2009. http://europatientrights.eu/countries/signed/finland/finland-right-to-informed- consent-minors.html
204. Article 9, Czech Civil Code: L. Stultiens, et al., supra, n. 9, 24.
205. Ibid., 26.
206. Brazier M., C. Bridge, supra, n. 44;
207. R. Taylor, supra, n. 17.
208. Harris J., The Value of Life, London: Routledge, 1995, pp. 195-205.
209. Brazier, M., C. Bridge, supra, n. 44, 109.
210. Taylor, R., supra, n. 17.
211. For example Canada, Ontario, Health Care Consent Act 1996, s. 4(2).
212. See Report 119, supra, n. 61, para. 5.26.
213. [1993] 1 FLR 386.
214. [1998] Fam. Law 591.
215. Axon, supra, n. 15 per Silber J., at 2.
216. Fortin, J., "Accommodating Children's Rights in a Post Human Rights Act Era", Modern Law Review 69 (3) (2006), 299, 311.