Rheology of the deep upper mantle and its implications for the preservation of the continental roots: A review

Tectonophysics

Volumn 481, Issue 1-4, 2010, Pages 82-98

  Karato, Shun ichiro ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Continental root; Dislocation creep; Mantle convection; Partial melting; Pressure; Rheology; Water

Indexed keywords

ACTIVATION VOLUME; ARCHEAN; CONSTANT STRESS; DEEP ROOTS; DEEP UPPER MANTLE; DISLOCATION CREEP; EFFECTIVE VISCOSITY; EXPERIMENTAL DATA; EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES; FLOW LAW; GEOTHERMS; HIGH TEMPERATURE CREEP; INFLUENCE OF WATER; KEY FACTORS; MANTLE CONVECTION; ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE; PARTIAL MELTING; POWER LAW CREEP; POWER-LAW; RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTY; ROBUST ESTIMATE; SEISMIC ANISOTROPY; UPPER MANTLE; WATER REMOVAL;

CREEP; DEWATERING; ELASTICITY; MELTING; OLIVINE; PLASTICITY; RHEOLOGY; SILICATE MINERALS; STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY; VISCOSITY; WATER ANALYSIS;

WATER CONTENT;

CONTINENTAL CRUST; CREEP; DEFORMATION; GEODYNAMICS; MANTLE CONVECTION; PARTIAL MELTING; RHEOLOGY; UPPER MANTLE;

EID: 72149093247     PISSN: 00401951     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.tecto.2009.04.011     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Abbott D., Burgess L., and Longhi J. An empirical thermal history of the Earth's upper mantle. Journal of Geophysical Research 99 (1994) 13835-13850
2. Anderson D.L. The deep structure of continents. Journal of Geophysical Research 84 (1979) 7555-7560
3. Artemieva I.M. Global 1° × 1° thermal model TC1 for the continental lithosphere: implications for lithosphere secular evolution. Tectonophysics 416 (2006) 245-277
4. Artemieva I.M. The continental lithosphere: reconciling thermal, seismic, and petrologic data. Lithos 109 (2009) 23-46
5. Bai Q., Mackwell S.J., and Kohlstedt D.L. High temperature creep of olivine single crystals 1. Mechanical results for buffered samples. Journal of Geophysical Research 96 (1991) 2441-2463
6. Béjina F., Jaoul O., and Liebermann R.C. Activation volume of Si diffusion in San Carlos olivine: implications for upper mantle rheology. Journal of Geophysical Research 104 (1999) 25529-25542
7. Bell D.R., and Rossman G.R. The distribution of hydroxyl in garnets from the sub-continental mantle of southern Africa. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 111 (1992) 161-178
8. Bell D.R., and Rossman G.R. Water in Earth's mantle: the role of nominally anhydrous minerals. Science 255 (1992) 1391-1397
9. Bell D.R., Rossman G.R., and Moore R.O. Abundance and partitioning of OH in a high-pressure magmatic system: megacrysts from the Monastery Kimberlite, South Africa. Journal of Petrology 45 (2004) 1539-1564
10. Ben Ismail W., and Mainprice D. An olivine fabric database: an overview of upper mantle fabrics and seismic anisotropy. Tectonophysics 296 (1998) 145-157
11. Ben Ismail W., Barroul G., and Mainprice D. The Kaapvaal craton seismic anisotropy: petrological analyses of upper mantle kimberlite nodules. Geophysical Research Letters 28 (2001) 2497-2500
12. Borch R.S., and Green II H.W. Dependence of creep in olivine on homologous temperature and its implication for flow in the mantle. Nature 330 (1987) 345-348
13. Borch R.S., and Green II H.W. Deformation of peridotite at high pressure in a new molten cell: comparison of traditional and homologous temperature treatments. Physics of Earth and Planetary Interiors 55 (1989) 269-276
14. Boullier A.M., and Gueguen Y. SP-mylonites: origin of some mylonites by superplastic flow. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 50 (1975) 93-104
15. Boyd F.R. A pyroxene geothem. Geochemica and Cosmochemica Acta 37 (1973) 2533-2546
16. Bussod G.Y., Katsura T., and Rubie D.C. The large volume multi-anvil press as a high P-T deformation apparatus. Pure and Applied Geophysics 141 (1993) 579-599
17. Cadek O., and Fleitout L. Effect of lateral viscosity variation in the top 300 km on the geoid and dynamic topography. Geophysical Journal International 152 (2003) 566-580
18. 2 systems to 12 GPa: implications for the origin of kimberlite and carbonatite stability in the Earth's upper mantle. Journal of Geophysical Research 95 (1990) 15805-15816
19. Carlson R.W., Irving A.J., and Hearn Jr. B.C. Chemical and isotopic systematics of peridotite xenoliths from the Williams Kimberlite, Montana: clues to processes of lithosphere formation, modification and destruction. In: Gurney J.J., Gurney J.L., D.P. M S.H., and Richardson (Eds). Proceedings of the 7th International Kimberlite Conference (1999), Red Roof Design, Cape Town 90-98
20. Carlson R.W., et al. Re-Os systematics of lithospheric peridotites: implications for lithosphere formation and preservation. In: Gurney J.J., Gurney J.L., D.P. M S.H., and Richardson (Eds). Proceedings of the VIIth International Kimberlite Conference (1999), Red Roof Design, Cape Town 99-108
21. Carlson R.W., Pearson D.G., and James D.E. Physical, chemical, and chronological characteristics of continental mantle. Review of Geophysics 43 (2005) 10.1029/2004RG000156
22. Carter N.L. Steady state flow of rocks. Review of Geophysics and Space Physics 14 (1976) 301-360
23. Chen J., Inoue T., Weidner D.J., Wu Y., and Vaughan M.T. Strength and water weakening of mantle minerals, olivine, wadsleyite and ringwoodite. Geophysical Research Letters 25 (1998) 575-578
24. Chopra P.N., and Paterson M.S. The experimental deformation of dunite. Tectonophysics 78 (1981) 453-573
25. Chopra P.N., and Paterson M.S. The role of water in the deformation of dunite. Journal of Geophysical Research 89 (1984) 7861-7876
26. Danchin R.V. Minerals and bulk chemistry of garnet lherzolite and garnet harzburgite xenoliths from the Premier Mine, South Africa. In: Boyd F.R., and Meyer H.O.A. (Eds). The Mantle Samples: Inclusions in Kimelrlites and Other Volcanics (1979), American Geophysical Union, Washington DC 104-126
27. De Bresser J.H.P., ter Heege J.H., and Spiers C.J. Grain size reduction by dynamic recrystallization: can it result in major rheological weakening?. International Journal of Earth Sciences 90 (2001) 28-45
28. Deschamps F., Lebedev S., Meier T., and Trampert J. Azimuthal anisotropy of Rayleigh-wave phase velocities in the east-central United States. Geophysical Journal International 173 (2008) 827-843
29. Dixon J.E., Leist L., Langmuir J., and Schiling J.G. Recycled dehydrated lithosphere observed in plume-influenced mid-ocean-ridge basalt. Nature 420 (2002) 385-389
30. Doin M., Fleitout L., and Christensen U.R. Mantle convection and stability of depleted and undepleted continental lithosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research 102 (1997) 2771-2787
31. Drury M.R., and Urai J. Deformation-related recrystallization processes. Tectonophysics 172 (1990) 235-253
32. Dziewonski A.M., and Anderson D.L. Preliminary reference Earth model. Physics of Earth and Planetary Interiors 25 (1981) 297-356
33. Frost H.J., and Ashby M.F. Deformation Mechanism Maps (1982), Pergamon Press, Oxford 168 pp.
34. Gao S., Rudnick R.L., Carlson R.W., McDonough W.F., and Liu Y.-S. Re-Os evidence of ancient mantle lithosphere beneath the north China craton. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 198 (2002) 307-322
35. Gleason G.C., and Tullis J. A flow law for dislocation creep of quartz aggregates determined with the molten slat cell. Tectonophysics 247 (1995) 1-23
36. Goetze C. Sheared lherzolites: from the point of view of rock mechanics. Geology (1975) 172-173
37. Green II H.W., and Borch R.S. The pressure dependence of creep. Acta Metallurgica 35 (1987) 1301-1305
38. Griffin W.L., O'Reilly S.Y., Natapov L.M., and Ryan C.G. The evolution of lithospheric mantle beneath the Kalahari craton and its margins. Lithos 71 (2003) 215-241
39. 2O-rich fluid component in the generation of primitive basaltic andesites and andesites from the Mt. Shasta region, N. California. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 142 (2002) 375-396
40. Gung Y., Romanowicz B., and Panning M. Global anisotropy and the thickness of continents. Nature 422 (2003) 707-711
41. Handy M.R. Deformation regimes and the rheological evolution of fault zones in the lithosphere: the effects of pressure, temperature, grain size and time. Tectonophysics 163 (1989) 119-152
42. Hier-Majumder S., Anderson I.M., and Kohlstedt D.L. Influence of protons on Fe-Mg interdiffusion in olivine. Journal of Geophysical Research 110 (2005) 10.1029/2004JB003292
43. 2O cycle. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 34 (2006) 629-653
44. Hirth G., and Kohlstedt D.L. Water in the oceanic upper mantle-implications for rheology, melt extraction and the evolution of the lithosphere. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 144 (1996) 93-108
45. Hirth G., and Kohlstedt D.L. Rheology of the upper mantle and the mantle wedge: a view from the experimentalists. In: Eiler J.E. (Ed). Inside the Subduction Factory (2003), American Geophysical Union, Washington DC 83-105
46. Hirth G., Evans R.L., and Chave A.D. Comparison of continental and oceanic mantle electrical conductivity: is Archean lithosphere dry?. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 1 (2000) 10.1029/2000GC000048
47. Houseman G.A., and Molnar P. Gravitational (Rayleigh-Taylor) instability of a layer with non-linear viscosity and convective thinning of continental lithosphere. Geophysical Journal International 128 (1997) 125-150
48. Huang X., Xu Y., and Karato S. Water content of the mantle transition zone from the electrical conductivity of wadsleyite and ringwoodite. Nature 434 (2005) 746-749
49. Ito E., Harris D.M., and Anderson A.T. Alteration of oceanic crust and geologic cycling of chlorine and water. Geochemica and Cosmochemica Acta 47 (1983) 1613-1624
50. James D.E., Fouch M.J., VanDecar J.C., Lee v.f., and Group K.S.S. Tectospheric structure beneath southern Africa. Geophysical Research Letters 28 (2001) 2485-2488
51. Jin, D., 1995. Deformation Microstructures of Some Ultramafic Rocks. M Sc Thesis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 115 pp.
52. Jin D., Karato S., and Obata M. Mechanisms of shear localization in the continental lithosphere: inference from the deformation microstructures of peridotites from the Ivrea zone, northern Italy. Journal of Structural Geology 20 (1998) 195-209
53. Johnson K.T.M., Dick H.J.B., and Shimizu N. Melting in the oceanic upper mantle: an ion microprobe study of diopsides in abyssal peridotites. Journal of Geophysical Research 95 (1990) 2661-2678
54. Jordan T.H. The continental tectosphere. Review of Geophysics and Space Physics 13 (1975) 1-12
55. Jordan T.H. Continents as a chemical boundary layer. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. A 301 (1981) 359-373
56. Karato S. Does partial melting reduce the creep strength of the upper mantle?. Nature 319 (1986) 309-310
57. Karato S. Influence of hydrogen-related defects on the electrical conductivity and plastic deformation of mantle minerals: a critical review. In: Jacobsen S.D., and van der Lee S. (Eds). Earth's Deep Water Cycle (2006), American Geophysical Union, Washington DC 113-129
58. Karato S. Deformation of Earth Materials: Introduction to the Rheology of the Solid Earth (2008), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 463 pp.
59. Karato S., and Jung H. Effects of pressure on high-temperature dislocation creep in olivine polycrystals. Philosophical Magazine. A. 83 (2003) 401-414
60. Karato S., and Rubie D.C. Toward experimental study of plastic deformation under deep mantle conditions: a new multianvil sample assembly for deformation experiments under high pressures and temperatures. Journal of Geophysical Research 102 (1997) 20111-20122
61. Karato S., and Weidner D.J. Laboratory studies of rheological properties of minerals under deep mantle conditions. Elements 4 (2008) 191-196
62. Karato S., and Wu P. Rheology of the upper mantle: a synthesis. Science 260 (1993) 771-778
63. Karato S., Toriumi M., and Fujii T. Dynamic recrystallization of olivine single crystals during high temperature creep. Geophysical Research Letters 7 (1980) 649-652
64. Karato S., Paterson M.S., and Fitz Gerald J.D. Rheology of synthetic olivine aggregates: influence of grain-size and water. Journal of Geophysical Research 91 (1986) 8151-8176
65. Karato S., Jung H., Katayama I., and Skemer P.A. Geodynamic significance of seismic anisotropy of the upper mantle: new insights from laboratory studies. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 36 (2008) 59-95
66. Kawazoe T., Karato S., Otsuka K., Jing Z., and Mookherjee M. Shear deformation of dry polycrystalline olivine under deep upper mantle conditions using a rotational Drickamer apparatus (RDA). Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 174 (2009) 128-137
67. Kelly R.K., Kelemen P.B., and Jull M. Buoyancy of the continental upper mantle. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 4 (2003) 10.1029/2002GC000399
68. Keppler H., Wiedenbeck M., and Shcheka S.S. Carbon solubility in olivine and the mode of carbon storage in the Earth's mantle. Nature 424 (2003) 414-416
69. Kocks U.F., Argon A.S., and Ashby M.F. Thermodynamics and kinetics of slip. Progress in Materials Sciences 19 (1975) 1-288
70. Kohlstedt D.L., and Mackwell S.J. Diffusion of hydrogen and intrinsic point defects in olivine. Zeitschrift für Phisikalische Chemie 207 (1998) 147-162
71. Kohlstedt D.L., Evans B., and Mackwell S.J. Strength of the lithosphere: constraints imposed by laboratory measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research 100 (1995) 17587-17602
72. Kopylova M.G., and Russell J.K. Chemical stratification of cratonic lithosphere: constraints from the northern Slave craton, Canada. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 181 (2000) 71-87
73. Korenaga J. Archean geodynamics and the thermal evolution of the Earth. In: Benn K., Mareschal J.C., and Condie K.C. (Eds). Archean Geodynamic Processes (2006), American Geophysical Union, Washington DC 7-32
74. Langdon T.G. A unified approach to grain boundary sliding in creep and superplasticity. Acta Metallurgica et Materials 42 (1994) 2437-2443
75. Lee C.-T.A. Compositional variation of density and seismic velocities in natural peridotites at STP conditions: implications for seismic imaging of compositional heterogeneities in the upper mantle. Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (2003) 10.1029/2003JB0002413
76. Lenardic A., and Moresi L.N. Some thoughts on the stability of cratonic lithosphere: effects of buoyancy and viscosity. Journal of Geophysical Research 104 (1999) 12747-12759
77. Li L., Raterron P., Weidner D.J., and Chen J. Olivine flow mechanisms at 8 GPa. Physics of Earth and Planetary Interiors 138 (2003) 113-129
78. Li L., Weidner D.J., Raterron P., Chen J., and Vaughan M.T. Stress measurements of deforming olivine at high pressure. Physics of Earth and Planetary Interiors 143/144 (2004) 357-367
79. Li L., et al. Deformation of olivine at mantle pressure using the D-DIA. European Journal of Mineralogy 18 (2006) 7-19
80. Li Z.-X.A., Lee C.-T.A., Peslier A.H., Lenardic A., and Mackwell S.J. Water contents in mantle xenoliths from the Colorado Plateau and vicinity: implications for the mantle rheology and hydration-induced thinning of continental lithosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research 113 (2008) 10.1029/2007JB005540
81. Mackwell S.J., Kohlstedt D.L., and Paterson M.S. The role of water in the deformation of olivine single crystals. Journal of Geophysical Research 90 (1985) 11319-11333
82. Mei S., and Kohlstedt D.L. Influence of water on plastic deformation of olivine aggregates, 1. Diffusion creep regime. Journal of Geophysical Research 105 (2000) 21457-21469
83. Mei S., and Kohlstedt D.L. Influence of water on plastic deformation of olivine aggregates, 2. Dislocation creep regime. Journal of Geophysical Research 105 (2000) 21471-21481
84. Mercier J.-C.C. Peridotite xenoliths and dynamics of kimberlite intrusion. In: Boyd F.R., and Meyer H.O.A. (Eds). The Mantle Sample: Inclusions in Kimberlites and Other Volcanics (1979), American Geophysical Union, Washington DC
85. Mercier J.-C.C. Magnitude of the continental lithospheric stresses inferred from rheomorphic petrology. Journal of Geophysical Research 85 (1980) 6293-6303
86. Mercier J.-C.C., and Nicolas A. Textures and fabrics of upper mantle peridotites as illustrated by xenoliths from basalts. Journal of Petrology 16 (1975) 454-487
87. Mitrovica J.X. Haskell [1935] revisited. Journal of Geophysical Research 101 (1996) 555-569
88. Mookherjee, M. and Karato, S., submitted for publication. Solubility of water in pyrope-rich garnet at high pressure and temperature. Chemical Geology.
89. Nishihara Y., Shinmei T., and Karato S. Grain-growth kinetics in wadsleyite: effects of chemical environment. Physics of Earth and Planetary Interiors 154 (2006) 30-43
90. Ohuchi, T. and Karato, S., submitted for publication. Plastic deformation of orthopyroxene under the lithospheric conditions. Nature Geoscience.
91. Pasteris J.D. Kimberlites: complex mantle melts. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984) 133-153
92. Paterson M.S. The determination of hydroxyl by infrared absorption in quartz, silicate glass and similar materials. Bulletin Mineralogie 105 (1982) 20-29
93. Paterson M.S. Rock deformation experimentation. In: Duba A.G., Durham W.B., Handin J.W., and Wang H.F. (Eds). The Brittle-Ductile Transition in Rocks: The Heard Volume (1990), American Geophysical Union, Washington DC 187-194
94. Poirier J.-P., and Nicolas A. Deformation induced recrystallization due to progressive misorientation of subgrains, with special reference to mantle peridotites. Journal of Geology 83 (1975) 707-720
95. Pollack H.K. Cratonization and the thermal evolution of the mantle. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 80 (1986) 175-182
96. Post R.L. High-temperature creep of Mt. Burnett dunite. Tectonophysics 42 (1977) 75-110
97. Poudjom Djomani Y.H., O'Reilly S.Y., Griffin W.L., and Morgan P. The density structure of subcontinental lithosphere through time. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 184 (2001) 605-621
98. Raleigh C.B., Kirby S.H., Carter N.L., and Avé Lallemant H.G. Slip and the clinoenstatite transformation as competing processes in enstatite. Journal of Geophysical Research 76 (1971) 4011-4022
99. Raterron P., Chen J., Li L., Weidner D.J., and Cordier P. Pressure-induced slip system transition in forsterite: single-crystal rheological properties at mantle pressure and temperature. American Mineralogist 92 (2007) 1436-1445
100. Ringwood A.E. Composition and Structure of the Earth's Mantle (1975), McGraw-Hill, New York 618 pp.
101. Röhm A.H.E., Snieder R., Goes S., and Trampert J. Thermal structure of continental upper mantle inferred from S-wave velocity and surface heat flow. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 181 (2000) 395-407
102. Rudnick R.L., McDonough W.F., and O'Connell R.J. Thermal structure, thickness and composition of continental lithosphere. Chemical Geology 145 (1998) 395-411
103. Rybacki E., and Dresen G. Deformation mechanism maps for feldspar rocks. Tectonophysics 382 (2004) 173-187
104. Shapiro N., Hager B.H., and Jordan T.H. Stability and dynamics of the continental tectosphere. Lithos 48 (1999) 135-152
105. Shapiro S.S., Hager B.H., and Jordan T.H. The continental tectosphere and Earth's long-wavelength gravity field. Lithos 48 (1999) 115-133
106. Shcheka S.S., Wiedenbeck M., Frost D.J., and Keppler H. Carbon solubility in mantle minerals. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 245 (2006) 730-742
107. Shito A., Karato S., Matsukage K.N., and Nishihara Y. Toward mapping water content, temperature and major element chemistry in Earth's upper mantle from seismic tomography. In: Jacobsen S.D., and Lee S.v.d. (Eds). Earth's Deep Water Cycle (2006), American Geophysical Union, Washington DC 225-236
108. Skemer P.A., and Karato S. Sheared lherzolite revisited. Journal of Geophysical Research 113 (2008) 10.1029/2007JB005286
109. Stolper E.M., and Newman S. The role of water in the petrogenesis of Mariana trough magmas. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 121 (1994) 293-325
110. Takahashi E. Melting of a dry peridotite KLB-1 up to14 GPa: implications on the origin of peridotitic upper mantle. Journal of Geophysical Research 91 (1986) 9367-9382
111. Takahashi E. Speculations on the Archean mantle: missing link between komatiite and depleted garnet peridotite. Journal of Geophysical Research 95 (1990) 15941-15945
112. Tingle T.N., Green II H.W., and Finnerty A.A. Experiments and observations bearing on the solubility and diffusivity of carbon in olivine. Journal of Geophysical Research 93 (1988) 15289-15304
113. Tullis T.E., and Tullis J. Experimental rock deformation. In: Hobbs B.E., and Heard H.C. (Eds). Mineral and Rock Deformation (1986), American Geophysical Union, Washington DC 297-324
114. Urai J.L., Means W.D., and Lister G.S. Dynamic recrystallization in minerals. In: Hobbs B.E., and Heard H.C. (Eds). Mineral and Rock Deformation: Laboratory Studies (1986), American Geophysical Union, Washington DC 166-199
115. van der Wal D., Chopra P.N., Drury M., and Fitz Gerald J.D. Relationships between dynamically recrystallized grain size and deformation conditions in experimentally deformed olivine rocks. Geophysical Research Letters 20 (1993) 1479-1482
116. Vinnik L., Makayeva L.I., Milev A., and Usenko A.Y. Global patterns of azimuthal anisotropy and deformations in the continental mantle. Geophysical Journal International 111 (1992) 433-447
117. Walter M.J. Melt extraction and compositional variability in mantle lithosphere. In: Carlson R.W. (Ed). Treatise on Geochemistry (2005), Elsevier, Amsterdam 363-394
118. Wang Y., Durham W.B., Getting I.C., and Weidner D.J. The deformation-DIA: A new apparatus for high temperature triaxial deformation to pressures up to 15 GPa. Review of Scientific Instruments 74 (2003) 3002-3011
119. Wang D., Mookherjee M., Xu Y., and Karato S. The effect of water on the electrical conductivity in olivine. Nature 443 (2006) 977-980
120. Warren J.M., and Hirth G. Grain size sensitive deformation mechanisms in naturally deformed peridotites. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 248 (2006) 438-450
121. Wenk H.-R. Preferred Orientation in Deformed Metals and Rocks: An Introduction to Modern Texture Analysis (1985), Academic Press Inc., Orland 610 pp.
122. Wood B.J., Pawley A.R., and Frost D.R. Water and carbon in the Earth's mantle. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 354 (1996) 1495-1511
123. Xia Q.K., Sheng Y.M., Yang X.Z., and Yu H.M. Heterogeneity of water in garnet from UHP eclogites, eastern Dabieshan, China. Chemical Geology 224 (2005) 237-246
124. Xu Y., Nishihara Y., and Karato S. Development of a rotational Drickamer apparatus for large-strain deformation experiments under deep Earth conditions. In: Chen J., Wang Y., Duffy T.S., Shen G., and Dobrzhinetskaya L.F. (Eds). Frontiers in High-Pressure Research: Applications to Geophysics (2005), Elsevier, Amsterdam 167-182
125. Yamazaki D., and Karato S. High pressure rotational deformation apparatus to 15 GPa. Review of Scientific Instruments 72 (2001) 4207-4211
126. 4 and coexisting olivine: implications for mantle evolution and dynamics. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals 19 (1993) 409-422
127. Zhang S., and Christensen U.R. Some effects of lateral viscosity variations on geoid and surface velocities induced by density anomalies in the mantle. Geophysical Journal International 114 (1993) 531-547
128. Zhao Y.-H., Zimmerman M.E., and Kohlstedt D.L. Effect of iron content on the creep behavior of olivine: 1. Anhydrous conditions. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 287 (2009) 229-240
129. Zimmerman M.E., and Kohlstedt D.L. Rheological properties of partially molten lherzolite. Journal of Petrology 45 (2004) 275-298