The coproduction of neutral science and neutral state in cold war Europe: Switzerland and international scientific cooperation, 1951-69

Osiris

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 165-187

  Strasser, Bruno J ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 70450250300     PISSN: 03697827     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/605974     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. On the United States' spaceflight program, see Roger D. Launius and Howard E. McCurdy, Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership (Urbana, Ill., 1997).
2. On France's and India's atomic bombs, see Dominique Mongin, La bombe atomique frangaise, 1945-1958 (Paris, 1997)
3. Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy, and the Postcolonial State: Post- colonial Encounters (New York, 1998). In the case of France, this perspective is taken up most directly and successfully in
4. Gabrielle Hecht, The Radiance of France (Cambridge, Mass., 1997). On technology and the United States,
5. see David E. Nye, America as Second Creation: Technology and Narratives of New Beginnings (Cambridge, Mass., 2003). More recent examples include cloning research and nation building in South Korea.
6. Bruno Latour made this point long ago. Bruno Latour, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1987).
7. A rare exception is Hecht, Radiance of France (cit. n. 1).
8. Paul Forman, "Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Environment," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 3 (1971): 1-115;
9. Jonathan Harwood, "National Styles in Science: Genetics in Germany and the United States between the World Wars," Isis 78 (1987): 390-414.
10. On coproduction, see Sheila Jasanoff, ed., States of Knowledge: The Co-Production of Science and Social Order (New York, 2004), chap. 1.
11. For a preliminary account of the former argument, see Bruno J. Strasser and Frédéric Joye, "Une science 'neutre' dans la guerre froide? La Suisse et la cooperation ́scientifique européenne (1951-1969)," Revue Suisse d'Histoire 55 (2005): 95-112;
12. for the latter, see Strasser and Joye, "L'atome, l'espace et les molécules: La coopération scientifique internationale comme nouvel outil de la diplomatie helvétique (1951-1969)," Relations Internationales 121 (2005): 59-72.
13. For a study on the role of Swedish neutrality in Swedish-American relations in the field of guided missiles, see Mikael Nilsson, Tools of Hegemony: Military Technology and Swedish-American Security Relations, 1945-1962 (Stockholm, 2007).
14. More generally on scientific cooperation as a tool and foreign policy, especially in the United States, see John Krige and Kai-Henrik Barth, "Introduction: Science, Technology, and International Affairs," Osiris 21 (2006): 1-21;
15. Clark A Miller, "'An Effective Instrument of Peace': Scientific Cooperation as an Instrument of U.S. Foreign Policy, 1938-1950," Osiris 21 (2006): 133-60;
16. Ronald E. Doel and Kristine C. Harper, "Prometheus Unleashed: Science as a Diplomatic Weapon in the Lyndon B. Johnson Administration," Osiris 21 (2006): 66-85.
17. For an overview of European scientific cooperation, John Krige and Luca Guzzetti, eds., History of European Scientific and Technological Cooperation (Brussels, 1997); and
18. John Krige, "The Politics of European Scientific Collaboration," in Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. John Krige and Dominique Pestre (New York, 1997): 897-918.
19. On neutrality, universality, and objectivity, see Robert N. Proctor, Value-Free Science? Purity and Power in Modern Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1991);
20. Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope-Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, Mass., 1999);
21. Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, Objectivity (Brooklyn, N.Y., 2007).
22. John Krige, American Hegemony and the Postwar Reconstruction of Science in Europe (Cambridge, Mass., 2006).
23. Paul Forman, "Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 18 (1987): 149-229;
24. Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1993);
25. Amy Dahan and Dominique Pestre, eds., Les sciences pour la guerre, 1940-1960 (Paris, 2004); and
26. the life sciences, Angela N. H. Creager and Maria Jesus Santesmases, "Radiobiology in the Atomic Age: Changing Research Practices and Policies in Comparative Perspective," Journal of the History of Biology 39 (2006): 637-47.
27. For a historical sociology of the concept, see Anthony D. Smith, National Identity: Ethnonation- alism in Comparative Perspective (Reno, Nev., 1991); and
28. Smith, Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History (Malden, Mass., 2001).
29. For a recent overview of the topic, see Gerard Delanty and Krishan Kumar, The Sage Handbook of Nations and Nationalism (London, 2006).
30. For the point about human attributes, see Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism: New Perspectives on the Past (Ithaca, N.Y., 1983), 6.
31. On the creation of traditions, see Eric J. Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, UK, 1983).
32. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983).
33. Max Petitpierre, "Conferénce donnée le 9 novembre 1957 à Milan," 9 Nov. 1957, Documents Diplomatiques Suisses (available from http://www.dodis.ch) (hereafter cited as DoDiS), 14037.
34. Max Petitpierre, Switzerland's foreign minister from 1945 to 1961, made this point in Max Petitpierre, "La neutralité Suisse," 28 May 1953, DoDiS, 14036.
35. Hans Ulrich Jost, Le salaire des neutres: Suisse, 1938-1948 (Paris, 1999);
36. Georg Kreis, Switzerland and the Second World War (New York, 2000).
37. Dominique Dirlewanger, Seb́astien Guex, and Gian Franco Pordenone, La politique commerciale de la Suisse de la seconde guerre mondiale à l'entrée au GATT(1945-1966) (Zürich, 2004).
38. Daniel Trachsler, Neutral Zwischen Ost Und West? Infragestellung und Konsolidierung der Schweizerischen Neutralitatspolitik durch den Beginn des Kalten Krieges, 1947-1952 (Zurich, 2002);
39. Mauro Cerutti, "La Suisse dans la guerre froide: La neutralité Suisse face aux pressions Américaines à l'epoque de la guerre de Corée," in Guerres et paix, ed. Michel Porret, Jean-François Fayet, and Carine Fluckiger (Geneva, 2000), 321-42.
40. Petitpierre, "Conference donnee" (cit. n. 13).
41. George W. Ball, The Past Has Another Pattern: Memoirs (New York, 1982), 219.
42. Daniel Möckli, Neutralität, Solidarität, Sonderfall: Die Konzeptionierung der Schweizerischen Aussenpolitik der Nachkriegszeit, 1943-1947 (Zürich, 2000).
43. Quoted in Antoine Fleury, "La Suisse et le défi du multilatéralisme," in La Suisse dans le système international de l'après-guerre, 1943-1950, ed. Georg Kreis (Basel, 1996), 68-83.
44. On Petitpierre, see Louis-Edouard Roulet, ed., Max Petitpierre: Seize ans de neutralité active: Aspects de la politique etrangère de la Suisse, 1945-1961 (Neuchâtel, 1980).
45. Petitpierre, "Conférence donnée" (cit. n. 13).
46. Möckli, Neutralität (cit. n. 20);
47. Trachsler, Neutral Zwischen Ost Und West? (cit. n. 17).
48. Armin Hermann, John Krige, Ulrike Mersits, and Dominique Pestre, eds., History of CERN, 4 vols. (Amsterdam, 1987-96).
49. Dominique Pestre and John Krige, "Some Thoughts on the Early History of CERN," in Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research, ed. Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly (Stanford, Calif., 1992), 78-99.
50. Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Yugoslavia.
51. James Torres-Bodet to Max Petitpierre, 31 Aug. 1951, E 2001-04 (-) -/6, vol. 39, Swiss Federal Archives, Bern, Switzerland (hereafter cited as BAR).
52. "Laboratoire européen de recherche nucléaires, Annexe 3: Procès verbal de la réunion de Lucerne, 2 October 1951," 2 Oct. 1951, 8, E 2001-04 (-) -/6, vol. 39, BAR.
53. Ibid., "Laboratoire européen de recherche nucléaires, Annexe 3: Procès verbal de la réunion de Lucerne, 2 October 1951," 11.
54. Ibid. "Laboratoire européen de recherche nucléaires, Annexe 3: Procès verbal de la réunion de Lucerne, 2 October 1951,"
55. On the Swiss atomic bomb project, see Fréderic Joye-Cagnard, La construction de la politique de la science en Suisse: Enjeux scientifiques, stratégiques etpolitiques (1944-1974) (PhD diss., Univ. of Geneva, 2007), chap. 3.
56. The Swiss government was opposed only to military research carried out in collaboration with other countries, since that would violate its neutrality policy, not to research carried out independently.
57. "Laboratoire européen de recherche nucleaires" (cit. n. 28).
58. Ibid., Laboratoire européen de recherche nucleaires 11.
59. On the opposition to CERN from the older generation of European physicists, such as Paul Scherrer, see John Krige, "Scientists as Policymakers: British Physicists' 'Advice' to Their Government on Membership of CERN (1951-1952)," in Solomon's House Revisited: The Organization and Institutionalization of Science, ed. Tore Frängsmyr (Sagamore Beach, Mass., 1990), 270-91.
60. "Procès-verbal du Conseil fédéral," 6 Nov. 1951, 1004.1 (-) vol. 535, DoDiS 8137, BAR.
61. Pierre Auger to Victor Weisskopf, 5 July 1951, CERN Archives, Geneva, reproduced in
62. Hermann et al., History of CERN (cit. n. 24).
63. The Swiss delegation comprised three physicists (Paul Scherrer, Peter Preiswerk, and André Mercier), a psychologist (Jean Piaget), a member of the state of Geneva's government (Albert Picot), and a member of the Department of Foreign Affairs (Bernard Barbey). "Décision du Conseil federal," 6 Nov. 1951, E 1004 1951, vol. 535, DoDiS 8137, BAR.
64. "Instructions pour la délégation Suisse," 27 Nov. 1951, E 1004 1951, vol. 535, BAR.
65. Albert Picot to Max Petitpierre, 17 Jan. 1952, E 2001-04 1970/346, vol. 209, BAR.
66. Albert Picot to Max Petitpierre, 24 Dec. 1951, E 2001-04 (-) -/6, vol. 39, BAR.
67. On the place of CERN in U.S. foreign policy, see Krige, American Hegemony (cit. n. 8), chap. 3.
68. "Proces verbal de la seance de la commission du Conseil des Etats chargée d'examiner le message du Conseil fédéral du 4 avril 1952," 4 April 1952, E 2001-04 1970/346, vol. 209, BAR.
69. See John Krige's contribution to Hermann et al., History of CERN (cit. n. 24), chap. 8.
70. DMF to DPF, DEP, and DFI, 13 Feb. 1950, E 5155 (-) 1971/202, vol. 65, BAR.
71. Jean Piaget, "Notice," 25 Jan. 1952, E 2001-04 1970/346, vol. 209, BAR.
72. Ibid., Jean Piaget, "Notice," 2. 209
73. Ibid. Jean Piaget, "Notice,"
74. Ibid. Jean Piaget, "Notice,"
75. Ibid. Jean Piaget, "Notice,"
76. On the position of the United Kingdom, see Hermann et al., History of CERN (cit. n. 24), chaps. 12-13.
77. Ibid., Hermann et al., History of CERN 251.
78. Max Petitpierre to Paul Scherrer, 8 Feb. 1952, E 2001-04 1970/346, vol. 209, BAR.
79. Bruno J. Strasser, Lafabrique d'une nouvelle science: La biologie moléculaire à l'âge atomique (1945-1964) (Florence, 2006), chap. 1.
80. Intervention by Léon Nicole, Mémoriaux du Grand Conseil du Canton de Genève, 30 May 1953, on 628. On the referendum against CERN,
81. see Strasser, La fabrique (cit. n. 53), chap. 1.
82. Jean Vincent, "Rapporteur de la minorite," in Memoriaux du Grand Conseil du Canton (cit. n. 54), 612.
83. On France's position about the United States' joining CERN and toward the United Kingdom, see Dominique Pestre's contribution to Hermann et al., History of CERN (cit. n. 24), chap. 9; and
84. "Note pour l'Ambassadeur de France à Londres," 29 April 1953, CHIP 10022, CERN Archives;
85. "Minutes of the Session," 15 Dec. 1953, A151, CERN Archives.
86. Hermann et al., History of CERN (cit. n. 24), 1:252.
87. At the same time locating CERN in Switzerland was part of the concerns with the "German problem." See Krige, American Hegemony (cit. n. 8), chap. 3.
88. "Convention for the Establishment of a European Organization for Nuclear Research," July 1953, article 2, CERN Archives.
89. Cerutti, "La Suisse dans la guerre froide" (cit. n. 17).
90. On the case of Sweden, see Nilsson, Tools of Hegemony (cit. n. 5).
91. Antoine Fleury, "La Suisse et le Conseil de l'Europe," in Jalons pour une histoire du Conseil de I'Europe, ed. Marie-Thérèse Bitsch (Bern, 1997), 151-65;
92. Fleury, "La Neutralité Suisse à l'Epreuve de l'Union Européenne," in Neutrality in History, ed. Jukka Nevakivi (Helsinki, 1993), 188-99.
93. See, e.g., "Essai de définition d'une politique dans le domaine de la collaboration scientifique future," 29 Aug. 1960, DoDiS 16953; and Petitpierre, "Conférence donnée" (cit. n. 13).
94. On the history of space research in Europe, see John Krige and Arturo Russo, A History of the European Space Agency, 1958-1987 (Noordwijk, Netherlands, 2000);
95. for the case of Switzerland, see Büro für Weltraumgelegenheiten, ed., Die Schweiz, Europa und die Raumfahrt, Abenteuer und Notwendigkeit (Lausanne, 2000);
96. Stephan Zellmeyer, A Place in Space: The History of Swiss Participation in European Space Programmes, 1960-1987 (PhD diss., Univ. of Basel, 2007);
97. Peter Creola, Switzerland in Space-a Brief History (Noordwijk, Netherlands, 2003).
98. Roger D. Launius, John M. Logsdon, and Robert W. Smith, eds., Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years since the Soviet Satellite (London, 2002). The International Geophysical Year from July 1957 to 1958 also included an important component of atmospheric and space research.
99. John Krige, "What Is 'Military' Technology? Two Cases of U.S.-European Scientific and Technological Collaboration in the 1950s," in The United States and the Integration of Europe, ed. Francis H. Heller and John R. Gillingham (New York, 1996), 307-38.
100. The enormous difference in cost in developing a rocket or building a satellite was also a crucial issue. I thank John Krige for drawing my attention to this point.
101. "Question Borel posée au Conseil fédéral le 25 janvier 1960," 25 Jan. 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, bd. 94, BAR.
102. "Note dictée par Max Petitpierre," 27 Jan. 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, vol. 94, BAR.
103. "Proposition du Département politique fédéral au Conseil fédéral," 30 May 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, vol. 95, BAR.
104. John Krige and Lorenza Sebesta, "US-European Co-Operation in Space in the Decade after Sputnik," in Big Culture: Intellectual Cooperation in Large-Scale Cultural and Technical Systems, ed. Giuliana Gemelli (Bologna, Italy, 1994), 263-85.
105. Samuel Campiche, "Note en vue de l'entretien avec les savants suisses sur une organisation européenne pour la recherche spatiale," 14 March 1960, 1, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, vol. 94, BAR.
106. The Royal Society, "Western European Space Research Meeting," 29 April 1960;
107. "Draft Minutes," 30 April 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, vol. 94, BAR.
108. On Blue Streak, see Krige, "What Is 'Military' Technology?" (cit. n. 65); and
109. Krige and Sebesta, "US-European Co-Operation" (cit. n. 70).
110. Krige and Russo, A History of the European Space Agency (cit. n. 63), 44;
111. John Krige, "NATO and the Strengthening of Western Science in the Post-Sputnik Era," Minerva 38 (2000): 81-108.
112. Marcel Golay, "Recherche spatiale: Rapport relatif à la conférence de Londres," n.d. [May 1960], annexed to his letter to Max Petitpierre, 5 May 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, vol. 94, BAR.
113. Ibid. Marcel Golay, "Recherche spatiale: Rapport relatif à la conférence de Londres,", vol. 94
114. Royal Society, "Western European Space Research Meeting" (cit. n. 72).
115. Ibid. Royal Society, "Western European Space Research Meeting"
116. Bernard Barbey to Jean de Rham, 18 May 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, bd. 94, BAR.
117. "Rapport sur la réunion de Paris des 23 et 24 juin 1960," 29 June 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, bd. 94, BAR.
118. Ibid., ́union de Paris des 23 et 24 juin 1960," 5.
119. Departement politique fédéral to Président de la Société helvétique des sciences naturelles, 13 July 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, bd. 94, BAR.
120. "Rapport au Conseil fédéral sur la nécessité d'une organisation europeenne pour la recherche spatiale et sur l'intérêt pour la Suisse d'y participer," 22 July 1960, 11, E 2003 (A) 1974/52, vol. 153, BAR.
121. The Swiss government received a confidential memo on this topic 2 Sept. 1960;
122. "Note pour le dossier," 15 Sept. 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, vol. 95, BAR.
123. "Note pour Monsieur le Ministre de Rham," 18 Oct. 1960, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, bd. 94, BAR.
124. "Rapport du DMF du 8 Mai 1962 a l'appui de la proposition du DPF du 30 Avril 1962," 8 May 1962, E 2003 (A) 1971/44, bd. 94, BAR.
125. Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
126. "Rapport au Conseil fédéral" (cit. n. 82), 10.
127. Friedrich T. Wahlen to Agostino Soldati, 14 April 1962, E 2804 1971/2 bd. 44, BAR.
128. On the flexible definition of what counts as a military technology, see Krige, "What is 'Military' Technology?" (cit. n. 65).
129. Golay, "Recherche spatiale" (cit. n. 74).
130. Ibid. Golay, "Recherche spatiale"
131. "Le Centre europeen de recherche spatiales est un projet pacifique auquel la Suisse participe," La Tribune de Genève, 23 June 1960, 21.
132. "Des Suisses . . . sur la lune!," Le Genevois, 10 Dec. 1960, 1.
133. For a detailed analysis of the press in the Swiss-German context, see Zellmeyer, A Place in Space (cit. n. 63).
134. Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 2005).
135. Bruno J. Strasser, "Who Cares about the Double Helix?" Nature 422 (2003), 803-4.
136. On molecular biology in postwar Europe, see Bruno J. Strasser and Soraya de Chadareian, eds., Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 33 (2002);
137. Soraya de Chadarevian, Designs for Life. Molecular Biology after World War II (Cambridge, UK, 2002);
138. Jean-Paul Gaudillière, Inventer la biomédecine: La France, l'Amérique et la production des savoirs du vivant, 1945-1965 (Paris, 2002);
139. Strasser, La fabrique (cit. n. 53).
140. Bruno J. Strasser, "Institutionalizing Molecular Biology in Post-War Europe: A Comparative Study," Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. Biomed. Sci. 33 (2002): 533-64.
141. On the history of EMBO and EMBL, see John Krige, "The Birth of EMBO and the Difficult Road to EMBL," Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. Biomed. Sci. 33 (2002): 547-64;
142. Bruno J. Strasser, "The Transformation of the Biological Sciences in Post-War Europe," EMBO Reports 4 (2003): 540-43.
143. Krige, "Birth of EMBO" (cit. n. 99).
144. On Kellenberger, see Bruno J. Strasser and Jacques Dubochet, "Eduard Kellenberger (1920-2004)," Nature 433 (2005), 817.
145. Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
146. Edouard Kellenberger to Friedrich T. Wahlen, 27 April 1964, E 2003 (A) 1987/29, vol. 185, BAR.
147. Edouard Kellenberger to Max Perutz, 4 July 1964, EMBO Archives, Heidelberg.
148. "Minutes of the Meeting of Council held at CERN, Geneva, on 12 July 1964," 12 July 1964, EMBO Archives, Heidelberg.
149. G. Pnett, "Mitteilung," [mid-Sept. 1965], E 2003 (A) 1978/29, vol. 185, BAR.
150. Krige, "Birth of EMBO" (cit. n. 99).
151. OECD, Problems of International Scientific Co-Operation-International Co-Operation in Biology-The Problem of Choice, 27 May 1965, 28, EMBO Archives.
152. Strasser, "Transformation of the Biological Sciences" (cit. n. 99).
153. "Minutes of the Meeting of Council held at CERN" (cit. n. 105).
154. "Meeting of EMBO Council at Geneva on 2 Feb. 1964," 2 Feb. 1964, EMBO Archives.
155. "Minutes of the Meeting of Council held at CERN" (cit. n. 105).
156. Jakob Tanner, Grundlinien der schweizerischen Aussenpolitik seit 1945 (Bern, 1993).
157. Antoine Fleury, "La Suisse: Le projet de grande zone de libre é change et la cre102 ation de la CEE," in Il rilancio dell'Europa e i trattati di Roma, ed. Enrico Serra (Milan, 1989), 355-76.
158. On NATO in science, see Krige, American Hegemony (cit. n. 8), chap. 8; and
159. Krige, "NATO and the Strengthening of Western Science" (cit. n. 73).
160. Fleury, "La Suisse et le conseil de l'Europe" (cit. n. 61), 151-65.
161. At the time of the CERN negotiations, Switzerland was still considering including countries of Eastern Europe, in line with UNESCO's universalist perspective; but by the early 1960s, the country had clearly aligned itself with Western Europe, making UNESCO's proposal politically unacceptable.
162. Jeffrey Wyman, "Notes on Discussion at Swiss Department of Foreign Affairs," 17 Jan. 1966, Eduard Kellenberger private archives. On the Ford Foundation in Europe,
163. see Krige, American Hegemony (cit. n. 8), chap. 6.
164. Giuliana Gemelli, "Western Alliance and Scientific Diplomacy in the Early 1960s: The Rise and Failure of the Project to Create a European MIT," in The American Century in Europe, ed. R. Laurence Moore and Maurizio Vaudagna (Ithaca, N.Y., 2003), 171-92.
165. "Projekt Fanfani (wissenschaftlich-technologischer Marshall-Plan)," 29 Oct. 1966, E 3375 (A) 1992/25, vol. 9, BAR.
166. Alfred Rappard to Division des Organisations Internationales, 7 April 1966, E 2003 (A) 1978/29, vol. 185, BAR.
167. Ernst Thalmann to Max Perutz, 9 Dec. 1966, EMBO Archives.
168. "Einladung der Schweiz zur Gründung einer europäischen Organisation für Molekular-Biologie," 30 Aug. 1966, E 2003 (A) 1978/29, vol. 185, BAR.
169. Michel Dumoulin, Pierre Guillen, and Maurice Vaïsse, eds., L'Energie nucléaire en Europe: Des origines à euratom (Bern, 1994). EURATOM's scientific failure does not imply it was not a successful political weapon;
170. see John Krige, "The Peaceful Atom as Political Weapon: Euratom and American Foreign Policy in the Late 1950s," Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences 38 (2008): 5-44.
171. Albert Picot, "Le laboratoire scientifique européen de recherches nucléaires," 21 April 1952, E 2001-04(-) 1970, vol. 346, BAR.
172. Petitpierre, "Conférence donnée" (cit. n. 13).
173. Feuille Fédérale 2 (1962): 325-51, on 341.