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Volumn 38, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 5-44

The peaceful atom as political weapon: Euratom and American foreign policy in the late 1950s

Author keywords

AEC; European integration; IAEA; Neo colonialism; Non proliferation; Nuclear power; Nuclear weapons; Soft power; State Department

Indexed keywords


EID: 51249104628     PISSN: 19391811     EISSN: 1939182X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/hsns.2008.38.1.5     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (53)

References (105)
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    • For an extensive recent treatment of Monnet's promotion of Euratom see Grégoire Mallard, "Sovereignty by Design" (PhD dissertation, Princeton University, forthcoming), esp. chap. 5
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    • Soft Power
    • "Soft power" is a phrase coined by Joseph Nye, previously Dean of the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. As Nye defines it "Soft co-optive power is just as important as hard command power. If a state can make its power seem legitimate in the eyes of others, it will encounter less resistance to its wishes. If its culture and ideology are attractive others will more willingly follow. . . . If it can support institutions that make other states wish to channel or limit their activities in ways that the dominant state prefers, it may be spared the costly exercise of coercive hard power." Joseph S. Nye Jr., "Soft Power," Foreign Policy 80 (1990): 153-71, on 167
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    • Joseph S. Nye Jr., "The Decline of America's Soft Power: Why Washington Should Worry," Foreign Affairs 83 (2004): 16-20
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    • Memo, Barbour to Secretary of State, "Suggested discussion with Admiral Strauss of AEC," 26 Jul 1955, NARA, RG59, Box 362, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General, Jan-Aug 1955. The sources for the references to Suez and Sputnik are provided in notes 82 and 98, below
    • (1955) Suggested Discussion with Admiral Strauss of AEC
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    • and Kai-Henrik Barth, Osiris 21 (2006): 49-65
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    • Cathryn Carson, "Nuclear Energy Development in Postwar West Germany: Struggles Over Cooperation in the Federal Republic's First Reactor Station," History and Technology 18:3 (2002): 233-70, which also provides an invaluable survey of the copious literature in German on this issue
    • (2002) History and Technology , vol.18 , Issue.3 , pp. 233-270
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    • Angela N. H. Creager, "Tracing the Politics of Changing Postwar Research Practices: The Export of 'American' Radioisotopes to European Biologists," Studies in the History and Philosophy of Biology and Biomedical Sciences 33 (2002): 367-88
    • (2002) Studies in the History and Philosophy of Biology and Biomedical Sciences , vol.33 , pp. 367-388
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    • Gabrielle Hecht, "Political Designs: Nuclear Reactors and National Policy in Postwar France," Technology and Culture 35 (1994): 657-85
    • (1994) Technology and Culture , vol.35 , pp. 657-685
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    • Negotiating Global Nuclearities: Apartheid, Decolonization, and the Cold War in the Making of the IAEA
    • Gabrielle Hecht, "Negotiating Global Nuclearities: Apartheid, Decolonization, and the Cold War in the Making of the IAEA," in Global Power Knowledge
    • Global Power Knowledge
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    • ed. Krige and Barth, Osiris 21 (2006): 25-48
    • (2006) Osiris , vol.21 , pp. 25-48
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    • Atoms for Peace, Scientific Internationalism, and Scientific Intelligence
    • John Krige, "Atoms for Peace, Scientific Internationalism, and Scientific Intelligence," in Global Power Knowledge
    • Global Power Knowledge
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    • Techno-utopian Dreams, Techno-political Realities: The Education of Desire and the Peaceful Atom
    • John Krige, "Techno-utopian Dreams, Techno-political Realities: The Education of Desire and the Peaceful Atom," in Utopia/Dystopia: Historical Conditions of Possibility, ed. Michael Gordin, Gyan Prakash, and Helen Tilley (Princeton: Princeton University Press, forthcoming)
    • Utopia/Dystopia: Historical Conditions of Possibility
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    • The United States and the Formation of Euratom
    • Jonathan E. Helmreich, "The United States and the Formation of Euratom," Diplomatic History 15 (1991): 387-410
    • (1991) Diplomatic History , vol.15 , pp. 387-410
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    • Euratom: A Study in Coalition Politics
    • H. L. Nieburg, "Euratom: A Study in Coalition Politics," World Politics 15 (1963): 597-622
    • (1963) World Politics , vol.15 , pp. 597-622
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    • Winand's is by far the most sophisticated of these historical accounts, but she does not highlight as much as I do the significance of the U.S.'s overall technological lead and the determination to use that as a "political weapon." Elements for a scientific insider's account are available in Bertrand Goldschmidt, The Atomic Complex: A Worldwide Political History of Nuclear Energy (LaGrange Park, IL: American Nuclear Society, 1982), 289-302
    • (1982) The Atomic Complex: A Worldwide Political History of Nuclear Energy , pp. 289-302
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    • Declaration of the German Nuclear Physicists
    • "Declaration of the German Nuclear Physicists," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 13 (1957): 228
    • (1957) Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , vol.13 , pp. 228
  • 32
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    • I4 Tritium- and Deuterium-marked Terphenyls," and "Microgravimetric Studies of the Corrosion Mechanism under Irradiation of Reactor Materials," Polach, Euratom (ref. 10), Appendix II
    • Euratom
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    • Education and Employment of Physicists
    • Henry A. Barton, "Education and Employment of Physicists," Physics Today 13 (Jan 1960): 20-22
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    • 33749669948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Technology, Science and American Innovation
    • For the science-technology relationship see Philip Scranton, "Technology, Science and American Innovation," Business History 48 (2006): 311-31
    • (2006) Business History , vol.48 , pp. 311-331
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    • Sally Marks, "The World According to Washington," Diplomatic History 11 (1987): 265-82, on 266
    • (1987) Diplomatic History , vol.11 , pp. 265-282
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  • 37
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    • Monnet Appeals for a United States of Europe
    • Jean Monnet, "Monnet Appeals for a United States of Europe," New York Times, 16 Jun 1955, 4
    • (1955) New York Times , pp. 4
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  • 40
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    • Memo of conversation, "Atomic energy and European integration," 25 Jan 1956, NARA, RG59, Box 363, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General Jan-Feb 1956 Part 1 of 2
    • (1956) Atomic Energy and European Integration
  • 41
    • 79957093441 scopus 로고
    • Draft "Outline for Discussion with the AEC," 14 Jul 1955, NARA, RG59, Box 362, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General, Jan-Aug 1955. This is just one of many similar analyses
    • (1955) Outline for Discussion with the AEC
  • 43
    • 79957265569 scopus 로고
    • Robinson to Bowie, 27 Dec 1955, FRUS 4, 378-87
    • (1955) FRUS , vol.4 , pp. 378-387
  • 44
    • 79957140581 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From www.bbc.co.uk/cumbria/content/image-galleries, accessed on 1 Sep 2007
  • 46
    • 79957204907 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Here and elsewhere in this paragraph I am simplifying, but hopefully not misrepresenting, an immensely complex issue. On the amount of Pu see "Plutonium: Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 18," June 2007, www.uic.com.au/nip18.htm, accessed on 25 Nov 2007, on 4
    • (2007) Plutonium: Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 18
  • 49
    • 79957244122 scopus 로고
    • Background paper, "Isotope Separation," undated but around Feb 1957, NARA, RG59, Box 362, Folder 19.8, Euratom Visits Wisemen 1957. Light-water reactors of U.S. design typically cost two to three times more than gas-graphite reactors using natural uranium
    • (1957) Isotope Separation
  • 53
    • 77956640610 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the German position on Euratom and Strauss in particular, see Eckert, "Kernenergie" (ref. 10)
    • Kernenergie
    • Eckert1
  • 54
    • 84972344063 scopus 로고
    • The Expansion of West German Capital and the Founding of Euratom
    • On the diverse interests of German industrialists see Christian Deubner, "The Expansion of West German Capital and the Founding of Euratom," International Organization 33 (Spring 1979): 203-28
    • (1979) International Organization , vol.33 , pp. 203-228
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  • 55
    • 84968194818 scopus 로고
    • Primacy Doomed to Failure: Heisenberg's Role as Scientific Adviser for Nuclear Policy in the FRG
    • See also Michael Eckert, "Primacy Doomed to Failure: Heisenberg's Role as Scientific Adviser for Nuclear Policy in the FRG," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 21:1 (1990): 29-58
    • (1990) Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences , vol.21 , Issue.1 , pp. 29-58
    • Eckert, M.1
  • 56
    • 79957051088 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Adenauer, with Heisenberg's help, had tried to kick-start a German nuclear program under the EDC. Heisenberg had a clause inserted in the EDC Treaty that allowed the country to acquire materials sufficient for a nuclear power station of 1,500 kW, from which the annual production of plutonium would not exceed 500 grams. On Heisenberg and the German nuclear energy program see Eckert, "Primacy" (ref. 38)
    • Primacy
    • Eckert1
  • 60
    • 79957226547 scopus 로고
    • Britain Exploits Atomic Market
    • American reporters at the Atoms for Peace Conference in Geneva were struck by the "vigorous lead" which the British had taken over the U.S. in the commercial exploitation of nuclear power: Michael L. Hoffman, "Britain Exploits Atomic Market," New York Times, 8 Aug 1955
    • (1955) New York Times
    • Hoffman, M.L.1
  • 62
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    • Extracts from a report published in The Economist, 5 Jan 1956, NARA, RG59, Box 363, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General Jan-Feb 1956, Part 1 of 2
    • (1956) The Economist
  • 63
    • 79957166065 scopus 로고
    • Memo of conversation with Guillamat (CEA), and Hall (AEC), Smith and Farley (State), 10 Oct 1955, NARA, RG59, Box 363, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General Sep-Oct 1955. This was about 8% of what the U.S. had spent on its civil program since the war ($3 billion), and about 1.5% of the U.S expenditure overall ($15 billion), Bulletin from the European Community for Coal and Steel 15 (May 1956), in NARA, RG59, Box 363, Folder 19.8 Regional Programs Euratom General May-Sep 1956, Part 1 of 2
    • (1956) Bulletin from the European Community for Coal and Steel , vol.15
  • 65
    • 3543067307 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Technology, Politics, and National Identity in France
    • Hecht deals with French trade union opposition to Euratom in chapter 4. See also Hecht, "Technology, Politics, and National Identity in France," in Technologies of Power: Essays in Honor of Thomas Parke Hughes and Agatha Chipley Hughes, ed. Michael Thad Allen and Gabrielle Hecht (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 253-94
    • (2001) Technologies of Power: Essays in Honor of Thomas Parke Hughes and Agatha Chipley Hughes , pp. 253-294
    • Hecht1
  • 66
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    • Memo, Schaetzel, "Europe and Atomic Energy," 2 Dec 1955, NARA, RG59, Box 363, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General Nov-Dec 1955
    • (1955) Europe and Atomic Energy
    • Schaetzel1
  • 67
    • 79957115717 scopus 로고
    • See also memo, Timmons to Merchant and Smith, "Euratom and Atomic Energy Bilaterals," 28 Mar 1956, NARA, RG59, Box 363, Folder Regional Program Euratom General, Mar-Apr 1956, Part 1 of 2. My primary sources do not divulge the degree of enrichment
    • (1956) Euratom and Atomic Energy Bilaterals
  • 68
    • 79957205222 scopus 로고
    • Memo, Schaetzel to Smith and Jones, "Next steps regarding Euratom," 22 Apr 1957, NARA, RG59, Box 364, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General Mar-Apr 1957, Part 2 of 2
    • (1957) Next Steps Regarding Euratom
  • 69
    • 79957082387 scopus 로고
    • Switzerland is the exception that proves the rule: it was not one of the Six and was treated by different criteria. Bern successfully negotiated a classified power bilateral for 500 kg of enriched uranium that became effective in January 1957. It did so somewhat reluctantly in the face of a counter offer from the Soviet Union, which was more lenient than the AEC in insisting on inspections to confirm that the material was not being diverted to military uses. Cold war rivalry, along with the fact that the Swiss were not one of the Six, doubtless explain the haste with which the AEC came to an agreement with Bern. See memo, Farley, "Additional section for memorandum for secretary on Euratom safeguards," 10 Apr 1958, NARA, RG59, Box 358, Folder 19.8p Safeguards Part 1
    • (1958) Additional Section for Memorandum for Secretary on Euratom Safeguards
    • Farley1
  • 70
    • 79957297690 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L'Approvisionnement en Uranium
    • Luc Gillon, "L'approvisionnement en Uranium," in Dumoulin, Guillon, and Vaïsse, L'energie nucléaire en Europe (ref. 10), 11-31
    • L'Energie Nucléaire en Europe , pp. 11-31
    • Gillon, L.1
  • 72
    • 79957314286 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Baffling Experience: Technology Transfer, Anglo-American Nuclear Relations, and the Development of the Gas Centrifuge 1964-70
    • Telegram to Secretary of State from Folger, on the "Report of the [Euratom] Study Group for the Construction of the European Plant for the Isotopic Separation of Uranium," and the Report itself, 29 May 1957, NARA, RG59, Box 364, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General, discusses a joint Dutch-German project to investigate the centrifuge process. On the subsequent development of the centrifuge process by the U.K. and the U.S. and the later involvement of Germany see Stephen Twigge, "A Baffling Experience: Technology Transfer, Anglo-American Nuclear Relations, and the Development of the Gas Centrifuge 1964-70," History and Technology 19 (2003): 151-63
    • (2003) History and Technology , vol.19 , pp. 151-163
    • Twigge, S.1
  • 73
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    • Memorandum of conversation, "European Atomic Energy Cooperation," 10 Oct 1955, NARA, RG59, Box 363, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General Sep-Oct 1955
    • (1955) European Atomic Energy Cooperation
  • 74
    • 79957091200 scopus 로고
    • Guillamat was the Administrator General of the French CEA at the time. The British were obviously threatened: the ambassador to Washington, Roger Makins, patronizingly dismissed European pressure for acquiring gaseous diffusion facilities as being "like that of a child who wanted the one toy being denied him by his godparents." (State replied that it probably reflected a "desire to achieve atomic independence.") Memo of conversation, "Atomic energy and European cooperation: OEEC Ministers meeting," 21 Feb 1956, NARA, RG59, Box 363, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General Jan-Feb 1956, Part 2 of 2
    • (1956) Atomic Energy and European Cooperation: OEEC Ministers Meeting
  • 75
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    • Klaus E. Knorr, "Euratom and American Policy: A Conference Report," Center of International Studies, Princeton University, May 1956, in NARA, RG59, Box 363, Folder 19.8 Regional Programs Euratom General May-Sep 1956, Part 1 of 2
    • (1956) Euratom and American Policy: A Conference Report
    • Knorr, K.E.1
  • 76
    • 79957268590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 235 using the gas diffusion process ("Report of the [Euratom] Study Group," NARA, RG59 [ref. 66]), and about $25/g using the centrifuge process
    • Report of the [Euratom] Study Group
  • 78
    • 79957212145 scopus 로고
    • memo, Hinton to Schaetzel, "Possible Euratom Isotopic Diffusion Plant," 24 May 1957, NARA, RG59, Box 365, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General May 1957
    • (1957) Possible Euratom Isotopic Diffusion Plant
  • 79
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    • memo, Yost to Schaetzel, "Isotope Separation Plant," 9 Jul 1957, NARA, RG59, Box 365, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General Jun-Dec 1957, Part 1 of 3
    • (1957) Isotope Separation Plant
  • 80
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    • Memo, Smith and Elbrick to Bowie, "Euratom" (not sent), 5 Sep 1956, NARA, RG59, Box 364, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General May-Sep 1956, Part 2 of 2
    • (1956) Euratom
  • 81
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    • Memo for the President, "U.S. support for Euratom," 25 Sep 1956, NARA, RG59, Box 364, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General May-Sep 1956, Part 2 of 2
    • (1956) U.S. Support for Euratom
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    • Memo, "Three Wise Men visit," undated but surely January 1957, NARA, RG59, Box 362, Folder 19.8s Euratom Visits 1. Wisemen, 1957
    • (1957) Three Wise Men Visit
  • 85
    • 79957423714 scopus 로고
    • Schaetzel to Butterworth, 26 Jul 1957; memo, Goldberg to Schaetzel, "Draft on European tour," 1 Aug 1957; Sprouse to Schaetzel, 9 Aug 1957, all in NARA, RG59, Box 362, Folder 19.8s Euratom Visits 2. Fifty European Industrialists, 1957
    • (1957) Draft on European Tour
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    • Council of Europe News, 1 Jan 1958, NARA, RG59, Box 365, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General 1958, Part 1 of 2
    • (1958) Council of Europe News
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    • 79957323718 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a history of the chemical separation plant to extract plutonium, see Jean-Marc Wolff, Eurochemic 1956-1990 (Paris: OECD, 1996). " Eurochemic" is the European Company for the Chemical Processing of Irradiated Fuels
    • (1996) Eurochemic 1956-1990
    • Wolff, J.-M.1
  • 89
    • 68849116408 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Krige, American Hegemony (ref. 11), chaps. 7 and 8 discuss the panic surrounding the Soviet feats in fall 1957, and some of the measures taken to strengthen science and technology in the Atlantic alliance
    • American Hegemony
    • Krige1
  • 90
    • 79957183983 scopus 로고
    • Memo for the President from Strauss and Acting Secretary, "U.S. cooperation with the European atomic energy community," 28 Jan 1958, NARA, RG59, Box 361, Folder 19.8r Regional Programs U.S.-Euratom Program General 1958, Part 1 of 2
    • (1958) U.S. Cooperation with the European Atomic Energy Community
  • 91
    • 79957039918 scopus 로고
    • Memo, Goldstein to Whitehouse, "U.S.-Euratom financial arrangements," 7 Jul 1958, NARA, RG59, Box 360, Folder 19.8r 5 Financial Arrangements Euratom
    • (1958) U.S.-Euratom Financial Arrangements
  • 92
    • 79957260595 scopus 로고
    • Memo, Farley to Dillon, "U.S.-Euratom nuclear power program," 14 Nov 1958, NARA, RG59, Box 360, Folder 19.8r 7. Joint Program Part 2 of 2; Schaetzel to Kohnstamm, 20 Nov 1958, NARA, RG59, Box 365, Folder 19.8b
    • (1958) U.S.-Euratom Nuclear Power Program
  • 93
    • 79957134277 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the congressional debate see Melandri, Les Etats-Unis (ref. 10), 171-79
    • Les Etats-Unis , pp. 171-179
    • Melandri1
  • 94
    • 79957202661 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a fine discussion of the relation between self-inspection and sovereignty see Mallard, "Sovereignty by Design" (ref. 3), chap. 6
    • Sovereignty by Design
    • Mallard1
  • 96
    • 79957151687 scopus 로고
    • Memo, Ekern to Farley, "Euratom Safeguards," 24 Apr 1958, NARA, RG59, Box 358, Folder 19.8p Safeguards, Part 1
    • (1958) Euratom Safeguards
  • 97
    • 79957012132 scopus 로고
    • Memo, Meyers, U.S. Embassy London, to State, "British Negotiations with Euratom," 23 Jun 1958, NARA, RG59, Box 365, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General 1958, Part 1 of 2
    • (1958) British Negotiations with Euratom
  • 98
    • 79957063175 scopus 로고
    • Memo, Farley to Under Secretary, "Questions Admiral Strauss may raise. . . ," 5 Jun 1957, NARA, RG59, Box 365, Folder 19.8 Regional Programs Euratom General 1958, Part 1 of 2
    • (1957) Questions Admiral Strauss May Raise...
  • 101
    • 67650987254 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The secret Franco-Italian-German (FIG) project is indicative of the wavering nuclear relations between the partners. It was initiated by the French in 1957 as a joint venture to counter what Paris perceived as Anglo-Saxon dominance in nuclear weapons. Initial plans included the possibility of building an isotope separation plant. Germany's hopes of collaborating closer with France in this domain were dashed when de Gaulle came to power in 1958, abruptly cancelled the FIG project, and suggested that Western defense should be based on a U.S.-U.K.-France nuclear triumvirate: See Susanna Schrafstetter and Stephen Twigge, Europe, the United States and the Struggle for Nuclear Nonproliferation, 1945-1970 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 90, 95
    • (2004) Europe, the United States and the Struggle for Nuclear Nonproliferation, 1945-1970 , pp. 90
    • Schrafstetter, S.1    Twigge, S.2
  • 102
    • 79957201602 scopus 로고
    • "Testimony of Governor Herter . . . ," 9 Jul 1959, NARA, RG59, Box 365, Folder 19.8 Regional Program Euratom General 1958, Part 1 of 2
    • (1959) Testimony of Governor Herter...
  • 105
    • 79957425894 scopus 로고
    • Butterworth for Department and AEC, "Major problems in Euratom-U.S. relations and recommendations thereon," 7 Feb 1961, NARA, RG59, Box 361, Folder 19.8r, U.S.-Euratom Program 8, Legislation 1959-1961. This long letter explains in detail all of the setbacks to Euratom precipitated by both parties to the agreement
    • (1961) Major Problems in Euratom-U.S. Relations and Recommendations Thereon


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