A review and meta-analysis examining the relationship of music content with sex, race, priming, and attitudes

International Journal of Phytoremediation

Volumn 56, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 303-324

  Timmerman, Lindsay M ^a   Allen, Mike ^a   Jorgensen, Jill ^a   Herrett Skjellum, Jennifer ^b   Kramer, Michael R ^c   Ryan, Daniel J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MILWAUKEE   (United States)

^b Verari Systems Inc   (United States)

^c SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

Attitudes; Excitation Transfer Theory; Media Effects; Meta Analysis; Popular Music; Priming; Race; Sex; Social Learning Theory

Indexed keywords

EID: 70350345982     PISSN: 15226514     EISSN: 15497879     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01463370802240932     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Allen, M., (1999). The role of meta-analysis for connecting critical and scientific approaches: The need to develop a sense of collaboration. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 16, 373–379.
2. Allen, M., & Burrell, N., (2002). The negativity effect in political advertising: A meta-analysis. In J., Dillard & M., Pfau (Eds.), The persuasion handbook: Developments in theory and practice (pp. 83–98). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
3. Allen, M., D'Alessio, D., & Brezgel, K., (1995). A meta-analysis summarizing the effects of pornography II: Aggression after exposure. Human Communication Research, 22, 258–283.
4. Allen, M., D'Alessio, D., Emmers, T., & Gebhardt, L., (1996). The role of educational briefings in mitigating effects of experimental exposure to violent sexually explicit material: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sex Research, 33, 135–141.
5. Allen, M., D'Alessio, D., & Emmers-Sommer, T., (1999). Reactions to criminal sexual offenders to pornography: A meta-analytic summary. In M., Roloff (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 22 (pp. 139–169). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
6. Allen, M., Emmers, T., Gebhardt, L., & Giery, M., (1995). Exposure to pornography and acceptance of the rape myth. Journal of Communication, 45 (1), 5–27.
7. *Arnett, J., (1991a). Adolescents and heavy metal music: From the mouths of metalheads. Youth & Society, 23, 76–98.
8. *Arnett, J., (1991b). Heavy metal music and reckless behavior among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 573–592.
9. Bandura, A., (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
10. Bandura, A., (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
11. *Barongan, C., & Hall, G., (1995). The influence of misogynous rap music on sexual aggression against women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 195–207.
12. Benoit, W. L., Hansen, G. J., & Verser, R. M., (2003). A meta-analysis of the effects of viewing U.S. Presidential debates. Communication Monographs, 70, 335–350.
13. *Bleich, S., Zillmann, D., & Weaver, J., (1991). Enjoyment and consumption of defiant rock music as a function of adolescent rebelliousness. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 35, 351–366.
14. Bloom, A., (1987). Closing of the American mind. New York: Simon and Schuster.
15. *Brown, J. D., & Schulze, L., (1990). The effects of race, gender, and fandom on audience interpretations of Madonna's music videos. Journal of Communication, 40 (2), 88–102.
16. *Brown, R., & O'Leary, M., (1971). Pop music in an English secondary school system. American Behavioral Scientist, 14, 401–413.
17. Brown, S., Homer, P., & Inman, J., (1998). A meta-analysis of relationships between ad-evoked feeling and advertising responses. Journal of Marketing Research, 35, 114–126.
18. Bryant, J., & Brown, D., (1989). Uses of pornography. In D., Zillmann & J., Bryant (Eds.). Pornography: Research advances & policy considerations (pp. 25–56). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
19. *Burke, R., & Grinder, R., (1966). Personality-oriented themes and listening patterns in teen-age music and their relation to certain academic and peer variables. School Review, 74, 196–211.
20. Chesebro, J. W., Foulger, D. A., Nachman, J. E., & Yannelli, A., (1985). Popular music as a mode of communication, 1955–1982. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 2, 115–135.
21. Christensen, P., (1992). The effects of parental advisory labels on adolescent music preferences. Journal of Communication, 42 (1), 106–113.
22. Clark, A., (1990–1991). “As nasty as they wanna be”: Popular music on trial. New York University Law Review, 65, 1481–1531.
23. Cohen, J., (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (, Rev. Ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
24. Cole, R., (1971). Top songs in the sixties: A content analysis of popular lyrics. American Behavioral Scientist, 14, 389–400.
25. Denisoff, R. S., & Levine, M. H., (1971). The popular protest song: The case of “Eve of Destruction.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 35, 117–122.
26. *Dixon, T., & Linz, D., (1997). Obscenity law and sexually explicit rap music: Understanding the effect of sex, attitudes, and beliefs. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 25, 217–241.
27. Duncan, D., (1990). Pornography as a source of sex information for university students. Psychological Reports, 66, 442.
28. Duncan, D., & Nicholson, J., (1991). Pornography as a source of sex information for students at a Southeastern university. Psychological Reports, 68, 802.
29. Elasmar, M., (1999). Opportunities and challenges using meta-analysis in the field of international communication. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 16, 379–384.
30. Elasmar, M., & Hunter, J., (1997). The impact of foreign TV on a domestic audience: A meta-analysis. Communication Yearbook, 20, 47–69.
31. Emmers-Sommer, T., & Allen, M., (1999). Surveying the effect of media effects: A meta-analytic summary of the media effects research in Human Communication Research. Human Communication Research, 25, 478–497.
32. *Fromm, M. L., (1981). The effects of music upon the values of compliance and non-compliant adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.
33. *Gan, S., Zillmann, D., & Mitrook, M., (1996, May). The stereotyping effect of African-American women's sexual rap on white audiences. Unpublished paper presented at the International Communication Association Convention, Montreal, Canada.
34. Gantz, W., Gartenberg, H., Pearson, M., & Schiller, S., (1978). Gratifications and expectations associated with pop music among adolescents. Popular Music and Society, 6 (1), 81–89.
35. Glynn, C. J., & Hayes, A. F., & Shanahan, J., (1997). Perceived support for one's opinion and willingness to speak out: A meta-analysis of survey studies of the “spiral of silence.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 61, 452–463.
36. Gow, J., (1994). Mood and meaning in music video: The dynamics of audiovisual synergy. Southern Communication Journal, 59, 255–261.
37. Greeson, L., & Williams, R., (1986). Social implications for music videos for youth: An analysis of the content and effects of MTV. Youth & Society, 18, 177–189.
38. Hale, J. L., & Dillard, J. P., (1991). The uses of meta-analysis: Making knowledge claims and setting research agendas. Communication Monographs, 58, 463–471.
39. Hall, G., Shondrick, D., & Hirschman, R., (1993). The role of sexual arousal in sexually aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 1091–1095.
40. Hall, J., & Rosenthal, R., (1991). Testing for moderator variables in meta-analysis: Issues and methods. Communication Monographs, 58, 437–448.
41. Hansen, C., & Hansen, R., (1990a). Rock music videos and antisocial behavior. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 11, 357–369.
42. *Hansen, C., & Hansen, R., (1990b). The influence of sex and violence on the appeal of rock music videos. Communication Research, 17, 212–234.
43. *Hansen, C., & Hansen, R., (1991a). Rock music videos and social reality through music: Individual differences among fans of punk and heavy metal music. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 35, 335–350.
44. *Hansen, C. H., (1989). Priming sex-role stereotypic event schemas with rock music videos: Effects on impression favorability, trait inferences, and recall of a subsequent male-female interaction. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10, 371–391.
45. *Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D., (1988). How rock music videos can change what is seen when boy meets girl: Priming stereotypic appraisal of social interactions. Sex Roles, 19, 287–316.
46. *Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D., (1991b). Schematic information processing of heavy metal lyrics. Communication Research, 18, 373–411.
47. *Hansen, C.H., & Krygowski, W., (1994). Arousal-augmented priming effects: Rock music videos and sex object schemas. Communication Research, 21, 24–47.
48. Hearold, S., (1979). Meta-analysis of the effects of television on social behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.
49. Hearold, S. (1986). A synthesis of 1043 effects of television on social behavior. In G., Comstock (Ed.), Public communication and behavior (Vol. 1, pp. 65–133). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
50. Herrett-Skjellum, J., & Allen, M., (1996). Television programming and sex stereotyping: A meta-analysis. Communication Yearbook, 19, 159–185.
51. Holt, J., (1990). Protecting America's youth: Can rock music lyrics be constitutionally regulated? Journal of Contemporary Law, 16, 53–75.
52. Huesmann, R., Moise, J., Podolski, C., & Eron, L., (1998, July). Longitudinal relations between children's exposure to television violence and their later aggressive and violent behavior in young adulthood: 1977–1992. Paper presented at the International Communication Association Convention, Jerusalem, Israel.
53. *Huffman, J. R., & Huffman, J. L., (1987). Sexism and cultural lag: The rise of the jailbait song, 1955–1985. Journal of Popular Culture, 21, 65–83.
54. Hunter, J., & Schmidt, F., (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting for artifact and bias in research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
55. *Johnson, J., Jackson, L., & Gatto, L., (1995). Violent attitudes and deferred academic aspirations: Deleterious effects of exposure to rap music. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16, 27–41.
56. Kalis, P., & Neuendorf, K., (1989). Aggressive cue prominence and gender participation in MTV. Journalism Quarterly, 66, 148–154.
57. Kurtz, H., (1981). Differences in themes in popular music and their relationship to deviance. Popular Music and Society, 8, 84–88.
58. *Lakkaraju, L., (1985). Music television and cultivation analysis. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.
59. Lalumiere, M., & Quinsey, V., (1994). The discrimination of rapists from non-sex offenders using phallometric measures: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 21, 150–175.
60. *Larson, R., & Kubey, R., (1983). Television and music: Contrasting media in adolescent life. Youth and Society, 15, 13–31.
61. *Lewis, G., (1980). Popular music, musical preference and drug use among youth. Popular Music and Society, 7, 176–181.
62. Lull, J., (1980). The social uses of television. Human Communication Research, 6, 197–209.
63. Lull, J., (1982). A rules approach to the study of television and society. Human Communication Research, 9, 3–16.
64. Malamuth, N., & Billings, V., (1986). The functions and effects of pornography: Sexual communications versus feminist models in light of research findings. In J., Bryant & D., Zillmann (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 83–108). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
65. McKee, K., & Pardun, C., (1996). Mixed messages: The relationship between sexual and religious imagery in rock, country, and Christian video. Communication Reports, 9, 163–171.
66. *Moore, J., (1989). Music and mayhem: An examination of the influence of music videos on interpersonal aggression. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio.
67. Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J., (1997). Two decades of cultivation research: An appraisal and meta-analysis. Communication Yearbook, 20, 1–46.
68. Moy, P., Domke, D., & Stamm, K., (2001). The spiral of silence and public opinion on affirmative action. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 78 (1), 7–25.
69. Paik, H., & Comstock, G., (1994). The effects of television violence on anti-social behavior. Communication Research, 21, 516–546.
70. *Peterson, D., & Pfost, K., (1989). Influence of rock videos on attitudes of violence against women. Psychological Reports, 64, 319–322.
71. Petric, G., & Pinter, A., (2002). From social perception to public expression of opinion: A structural equation modeling approach to the spiral of silence. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 14, 37–53.
72. Preiss, R., & Allen, M., (1995). Understanding and using meta-analysis. Evaluation & the Health Professions, 18, 315–335.
73. Rosenthal, R., (1984). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
74. Scheufele, D. A., & Moy, P., (2000). Twenty five years of the spiral of silence: A conceptual review and empirical outlook. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 12, 3–28.
75. Shanahan, J., (1999). Meta-analysis and mass communication criticism. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 16, 370–372.
76. Shanahan, J., Glynn, C., & Hayes, A., (2007). The spiral of silence: A meta-analysis and its impact. In R., Preiss, B., Gayle, N., Burrell, M., Allen, & J., Bryant (Eds.), Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 415–428). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
77. Sherman, B., & Dominick, J., (1986). Violence and sex in music videos: TV and rock 'n roll. Journal of Communication, 36 (1), 79–93.
78. Sherry, J., (2001). The effects of violent video games on aggression: A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research, 27, 409–432.
79. *St. Lawrence, J., & Joyner, D., (1991). The effects of sexually violent rock music on males' acceptance of violence against women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 49–63.
80. *St. Pierre, J., & Raney, A. A., (1998, April). Effect of exposure to white heavy metal and black political rap on the person perception of white and black men by white audiences. Paper presented at the Southern States Communication Association Convention, San Antonio, Texas.
81. Steblay, N., Besirevic, J., Fulero, S., & Jimenez-Lorente, B., (1999). The effects of pretrial publicity on juror verdicts: A meta-analytic review. Law and Human Behavior, 23, 219–235.
82. *Strouse, J., Buerkel-Rothfuss, N., & Long, E., (1996). Gender and family as moderators of the relationship between music video exposure and adolescent sexual permissiveness. Adolescence, 30, 505–517.
83. *Sun, S., & Lull, J., (1986). The adolescent audience for music videos and why they watch. Journal of Communication, 36, 115–125.
84. *Tanner, J., (1981). Pop music and peer groups: A study of Canadian high school students’ responses to pop music. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 18, 1–13.
85. *Thompson, M., Walsh-Childers, K., & Brown, J. D., (1993). The influence of family communication patterns and sexual experience on process of a music video. In B., Greenberg, J., Brown, & N., Buerkel-Rothfuss (Eds.), Media, sex, and the adolescent (pp. 248–262). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
86. *Trostle, L., (1986). Nihilistic adolescents, heavy metal rock music, and paranormal beliefs. Psychological Reports, 59, 610.
87. Vincent, R., (1989). Clio's consciousness raised? Portrayal of women in rock videos re-examined. Journalism Quarterly, 66, 155–160.
88. *Waite, B., Hillbrand, M., & Foster, H., (1992). Reduction of aggressive behavior after removal of music television. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 43, 173–175.
89. Wanamaker, C., & Reznikoff, M., (1989). Effects of aggressive and nonaggressive rock songs on projective and structured tests. Journal of Psychology, 123, 561–570.
90. Wells, J., (1984). Music television video and the capacity to experience life. Journal of Popular Music and Society, 9 (4), 1–6.
91. Witte, K., & Allen, M., (2000). A meta-analysis of fear appeals: Implications for effective health campaigns. Health Education & Behavior, 27, 591–615.
92. Zillmann, D., (1971). Excitation transfer in communication-mediated aggressive behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 419–435.
93. Zillmann, D., Aust, C., Hoffman, K., Love, C., Ordman, V., Pope, J., Seigler, P., & Gibson, R., (1995). Radical rap: Does it further ethnic division? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16, 1–25.
94. Zillmann, D., & Bhatia, A., (1989). Effects of associating with musical genres on heterosexual attraction. Communication Research, 16, 263–288.
95. Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., Comisky, P., & Medoff, N., (1981). Sexual material, anger, and aggression. European Journal of Social Psychology, 11, 286–306.
96. Zillmann, D., Hoyt, J., & Day, K., (1974). Strength and duration of the effect of aggressive, violent, erotic communication on subsequent aggressive behavior. Communication Research, 1, 286–306.
97. Zillmann, D., & Mundorf, N., (1987). Image effects in the appreciation of video rock. Communication Research, 14, 316–334.
98. Zillmann, D., & Sapolsky, B., (1977). What mediates the effect of mild erotica on annoyance and hostile behavior in males? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 587–596.