The creative american: Cold war salons, social science, and the cure for modern society

ISIS

Volumn 100, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 219-262

  Cohen Cole, Jamie ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CREATIVITY; HISTORY; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; PERCEPTION; PERSONAL AUTONOMY; POLITICS; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIOLOGY; UNITED STATES;

CREATIVENESS; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; PERSONAL AUTONOMY; POLITICS; SOCIAL CONFORMITY; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; SOCIAL SCIENCES; UNITED STATES;

EID: 70350276231     PISSN: 00211753     EISSN: 15456994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/599554     Document Type: Article

References (339)

1. John W. Gardner, Self Renewal: The Individual and the Innovative Society (New York: Harper & Row, 1963), p. 32.
2. On the conformity of traditional societies and a celebration of the modern mind see Alex Inkeles and David Horton Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1974).
3. For discussion of the place of this work in the field of modernization theory see Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2003).
4. The call for unity in diversity can be found in Daniel J. Boorstin, The Genius of American Politics (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1953), p. 28.
5. Lyman Bryson, Science and Freedom (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1948).
6. James B. Conant, Education in a Divided World: The Function of the Public Schools in Our Unique Society (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1948), p. 179.
7. Lawrence K. Frank, "Psychology and Social Order," in The Human Meaning of the Social Sciences, ed. Daniel Lerner (New York: Meridian, 1959), pp. 214-241, esp. p. 239.
8. Alain Locke, "Pluralism and Intellectual Democracy," in Conference on Science, Philosophy, and Religion: Second Symposium (New York: Conference on Science, Philosophy, and Religion, 1942), pp. 196-209, esp. p. 197.
9. Margaret Mead, And Keep Your Powder Dry: An Anthropologist Looks at America (New York: Morrow, 1942).
10. J. Robert Oppenheimer, "Theory versus Practice in American Values and Performance," in The American Style: Essays in Value and Performance, ed. Elting E. Morison (New York: Harper, 1958), pp. 111-123.
11. Alan Brinkley, "The Illusion of Unity in Cold War Culture," in Rethinking Cold War Culture, ed. Peter J. Kuznick and James Gilbert (Washington, D.C./London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001), pp. 61-73.
12. T. J. Jackson Lears, "A Matter of Taste: Corporate Cultural Hegemony in a Mass-Consumption Society," in Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War, ed. Lary May (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 38-57;
13. Shelly Nickles, "More Is Better: Mass Consumption, Gender, and Class Identity in Postwar America," American Quarterly, 2002, 54:581-622.
14. Select Committee to Investigate Foundations and Other Organizations, Final Report, 82nd Cong., 2nd sess., 1 Jan. 1953, pp. 9-10.
15. cited in Harry Alpert, "The National Science Foundation and Social Science Research," American Sociological Review, 1954, 19:208 -211.
16. See, e.g., Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in an Age of Experts (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1995).
17. See, e.g., Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in an Age of Experts (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1995); and Joel Pfister and Nancy Schnog, eds., Inventing the Psychological: Toward a Cultural History of Emotional Life in America (New Haven, Conn./London: Yale Univ. Press, 1997).
18. Central to this literature on the American self has been a focus on American concern with the empty self and the search for authenticity. See Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: Norton, 1978);
19. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1994).
20. Wilfred M. McClay, The Masterless: Self and Society in Modern America (Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press, 1993).
21. Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: The Forces Eroding Public Life and Burdening the Modern Psyche with Roles It Cannot Perform (New York: Knopf, 1977).
22. For discussion and critique of how social critics use the psychoanalytic category of narcissism as a tool for examining the nation see Elizabeth Lunbeck, "Borderline Histories: Psychoanalysis Inside and Out," Science in Context, 2006, 19:151-173.
23. The list of works that made up this analytic frame is vast. A representative sample is Boorstin, Genius of American Politics (cit. n. 2).
24. Henry Steele Commager, The American Mind: An Interpretation of American Thought and Character since the 1880s (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1950).
25. H. Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society: The Reorientation of European Social Thought, 1890-1930 (New York: Knopf, 1958).
26. Alex Inkeles and Daniel J. Levinson, "National Character: The Study of Modal Personality and Sociocultural Systems," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Eliot Aaronson (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), pp. 977-1020.
27. Clyde Kluckhohn, Henry A. Murray, and David M. Schneider, eds., Personality in Nature, Society, and Culture, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1953).
28. H. D. Lasswell, Psychopathology and Politics (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1930).
29. Charles Morris, Varieties of Human Value (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1956).
30. David M. Potter, People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American Character (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1954).
31. The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1950).
32. For an overview see Inkeles, ed., National Character: A Psycho-Social Perspective (New Brunswick, N.J./London: Transaction, 1997).
33. Michael McGiffert, "The Uses of National Character Studies," Amer. Quart., 1969, 21:330-349.
34. For a discussion of this phenomenon in social psychology see John D. Greenwood, The Disappearance of the Social in American Social Psychology (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004).
35. See also Robert A. Dahl, "The Behavioral Approach in Political Science: Epitaph for a Monument to a Successful Protest," American Political Science Review, 1961, 55:763-772.
36. Samuel Lubell, "That 'Generation Gap,'" Public Interest, 1968, no.13, pp. 52-60, on p. 54.
37. Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (New York: Free Press, 1960), p. 97.
38. For a similar point see the autobiographical remarks in Carl E. Shorske, "A Life of Learning," in Recasting America, ed. May (cit. n. 3), pp. 93-103, esp. p. 101.
39. For an examination of the midcentury move away from analysis of market forces see Howard Brick, "The Displacement of Economy in an Age of Plenty," in Transcending Capitalism: Visions of a New Society in Modern American Thought (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 2006), pp. 152-185.
40. On the norms of emotion, gender, and sexuality that made up the Cold War American self see, e.g., Frank Costigliola, "'Unceasing Pressure for Penetration': Gender, Pathology, and Emotion in George Kennan's Formation of the Cold War," Journal of American History, 1997, 83:1309-1339.
41. K. A. Cuordileone, Manhood and American Political Culture in the Cold War (New York: Routledge, 2005).
42. Robert D. Dean, Imperial Brotherhood: Gender and the Making of Cold War Foreign Policy (Amherst: Univ. Massachusetts Press, 2001).
43. Elizabeth Lunbeck, "Identity and the Real Self in Postwar American Psychiatry," Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 2000, 8:318 -322.
44. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War (New York: Basic, 1988).
45. Joanne Meyerowitz, "Sex, Gender, and the Cold War Language of Reform," in Rethinking Cold War Culture, ed. Kuznick and Gilbert (cit. n. 3), pp. 106-123.
46. Peter Braunstein and Michael William Doyle, Imagine Nation: The American Counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s (New York: Routledge, 2002).
47. Peter Clecak, America's Quest for the Ideal Self: Dissent and Fulfillment in the Sixties and Seventies (New York/Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1983).
48. Herman, Romance of American Psychology (cit. n. 5).
49. Lasch, Culture of Narcissism (cit. n. 5).
50. McClay, Masterless (cit. n. 5).
51. James Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1994).
52. Douglas C. Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1998).
53. That the 1950s represented a period of consensus and political and social quiescence was long accepted by both social critics and historians. For discussion of how social critics blinded themselves to divisions within American society see Lears, "Matter of Taste" (cit. n. 3).
54. For a more recent study of long-ignored divisions in Cold War America see Brinkley, "Illusion of Unity in Cold War Culture" (cit. n. 3).
55. See, e.g., Daniel Bell, "America as a Mass Society: A Critique," in The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (New York: Free Press, 1962), pp. 21-38, on p. 37.
56. J. T. Dunlop et al., "Toward a Common Language for the Area of the Social Sciences" (Harvard Univ., 1941).
57. George F. Kennan, "America's Administrative Response to Its World Problems," in American Style, ed. Morison (cit. n. 2), pp. 124-144.
58. Margaret Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa: A Psychological Study of Primitive Youth for Western Civilisation (Perennial Classics) (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), p. 8.
59. Margaret Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa: A Psychological Study of Primitive Youth for Western Civilisation (Perennial Classics) (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), p. 8; and Talcott Parsons, "Evolutionary Universals in Society," Amer. Sociol. Rev., 1964, 29:339 -357.
60. David E. Lilienthal, "The Unification of Specialized Knowledge in Practical Affairs," in Science, Philosophy, and Religion: Third Symposium (New York: Conference on Science, Philosophy, and Religion in Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life, 1943), pp. 237-244, on pp. 237, 239.
61. For the quotation see transcript of meeting minutes of the Committee on General Education in a Free Society, Serial No. 1, 8 July 1943, Box 1, Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, Massachusetts, UA I 10.528.10.
62. This and other materials from Harvard are courtesy of the Harvard University Archives. Regarding curricular reform see General Education in a Free Society (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1945)
63. B. Lamar Johnson, "General Education Changes the College," Journal of Higher Education, 1938, 9:18 -22.
64. T. R. McConnell, "General Education: An Analysis," in Fifty-first Year Book of the National Society for the Study of Education, ed. Nelson B. Henry (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1952), pp. 1-19.
65. Earl J. McGrath et al., Toward General Education (New York: Macmillan, 1948).
66. Elting E. Morison, "The Course of the Discussion," in American Style, ed. Morison (cit. n. 2), pp. 395-416, on p. 396.
67. Seymour Martin Lipset and Leo Lowenthal, "Preface," in Culture and Social Character: The Work of David Riesman Reviewed, ed. Lipset and Lowenthal (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1961), pp. v-xi, on pp. ix-x.
68. C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution: The Rede Lecture, 1959 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1959).
69. "The Port Huron Statement," rpt. in Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets (cit. n. 10), pp. 329-374, on p. 331.
70. Bell, "America as a Mass Society" (cit. n. 12), p. 35.
71. On the survey see Clyde Kluckhohn, "Shifts in American Values: Review of Max Lerner, America as a Civilization: Life and Thought in the United States," World Politics, 1959, 11:251-261.
72. For anxieties about conformity see Bryson, Science and Freedom (cit. n. 2).
73. Conant, Education in a Divided World (cit. n. 2), p. 179.
74. Although intellectuals lacked unanimity as to whether the United States was becoming a mass society, there was more general agreement as to the linkage of conformity, mass society, and authoritarianism. Generally, through the early 1960s, liberals such as Daniel Bell did not believe that the United Sates was a mass society. See Bell, "America as a Mass Society" (cit. n. 12).
75. Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1960). Leftists, including Irving Howe, and European e"migre"s, including members of the Frankfurt School, were more likely to diagnose the United States as a mass society.
76. X [George F. Kennan], "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," Foreign Affairs, 1947, 25:566 -582.
77. "NSC-68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security" (1950). The Truman library has made a scan of one of the originals of NSC-68 available online: http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/ study-collections/korea/large/week2/nsc68-1.htm. It is also reprinted in a number of places, including Ernest R. May, ed., American Cold War Strategy: Interpreting NSC 68 (Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1993), pp. 23-82.
78. Educational Policies Commission, American Education and International Tensions (Washington, D.C.: Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association, 1949), p. 4.
79. Allen L. Edwards, "The Signs of Incipient Fascism," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1944, 39:301-316.
80. Edwards, "Unlabled Fascist Attitudes," ibid., 1941, 36:575-582.
81. Edwards, "Unlabled Fascist Attitudes," ibid., 1941, 36:575-582; and Abraham H. Maslow, "The Authoritarian Character Structure," Journal of Social Psychology, 1943, 18:401-411.
82. These works built on earlier studies. See Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1941).
83. Lasswell, Psychopathology and Politics (cit. n. 6).
84. Ross Stanger, "Fascist Attitudes: An Exploratory Study," J. Soc. Psychol., 1932, 3:309 -319.
85. Stanger, "Fascist Attitudes: Their Determining Conditions," ibid., 1936, 7:438-454.
86. Theodor W. Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950).
87. On the chronology, history, and prehistory of the project see R. Nevitt Sanford, "A Personal Account of the Study of Authoritarianism: Comment on Samelson," Journal of Social Issues, 1986, 42:209 -214.
88. William F. Stone, Gerda Lederer, and Richard Christie, "The Status of Authoritarianism," in Strength and Weakness: The Authoritarian Personality Today, ed. Stone, Lederer, and Christie (New York: Springer, 1993), pp. 229-245.
89. For discussion of the earlier research on psychology and Fascism by Erich Fromm and other members of the Frankfurt School see Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923-1950 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973).
90. Franz Samelson, "The Authoritarian Character from Berlin to Berkeley and Beyond: The Odyssey of a Problem," in Strength and Weakness, ed. Stone et al., pp. 22-43.
91. Samelson, "Authoritarianism from Berlin to Berkeley: On Social Psychology and History," J. Soc. Issues, 1986, 42:191-208.
92. Adorno et al., Authoritarian Personality, p. 1.
93. Ibid., pp. 100, 47-49, 464, 80.
94. Raymond B. Cattell, "'Creative Effort' and Disposition Rigidity," Journal of Personality, 1946, 14:229-238.
95. K. L. Lewin, A Dynamic Theory of Personality (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1935), p. 205.
96. Abraham S. Luchins, "Proposed Methods of Studying Degrees of Rigidity in Behavior," J. Personality, 1947, 15:242-246.
97. Luchins, "Social Influences on Perception of Complex Drawings," J. Soc. Psychol., 1945, 21:257-273.
98. Herbert Spencer, "The Comparative Psychology of Man," Mind, 1876, 1:7-20.
99. Herbert Spencer, "The Comparative Psychology of Man," Mind, 1876, 1:7-20; and H. Werner, "Abnormal and Subnormal Rigidity," J. Abnormal Soc. Psychol., 1946, 41:15-24.
100. For analysis of the use of the term see Sheila M. Chown, "Rigidity-A Flexible Concept," Psychological Bulletin, 1959, 56:195-223.
101. Milton Rokeach, "Generalized Mental Rigidity as a Factor in Ethnocentrism," J. Abnormal Soc. Psychol., 1948, 43:259-278.
102. Else Frenkel-Brunswik, "Sex, People, and Self as Seen through the Interviews," in Adorno et al., Authoritarian Personality (cit. n. 24), pp. 390-441, on p. 441 (on the irrational nature of those who displayed rigidity).
103. Frenkel-Brunswik, "Comprehensive Scores and Summary of Interview Results," ibid., pp. 468-486, on p. 480.
104. Else Frenkel-Brunswik, "Tolerance toward Ambiguity as a Personality Variable," American Psychologist, 1948, 3:268.
105. Herbert H. Hyman and Paul B. Sheatsley, "The Authoritarian Personality-A Methodological Critique," in Studies in the Scope and Method of The Authoritarian Personality, ed. Richard Christie and Marie Jahoda (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1954), pp. 50-122.
106. Samelson, "Authoritarian Character from Berlin to Berkeley and Beyond" (cit. n. 24).
107. M. Brewster Smith, "The Authoritarian Personality: A Re-Review Forty-six Years Later," Political Psychology, 1997, 18:159 -163.
108. Jerome Fisher, "The Memory Process and Certain Psychosocial Attitudes, with Special Reference to the Law of Prägnanz," J. Personality, 1951, 19:406-420.
109. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954).
110. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (New York: Harper, 1944).
111. Frenkel-Brunswik, "Comprehensive Scores and Summary of Interview Results" (cit. n. 28), p. 480.
112. Daniel J. Levinson, "The Study of Ethnocentric Ideology," in Adorno et al., Authoritarian Personality (cit. n. 24), pp. 102-150, on pp. 149-150.
113. Else Frenkel-Brunswik, "Dynamic and Cognitive Personality Organization as Seen through the Interviews," ibid., pp. 442-467, on pp. 454, 467.
114. S. E. Asch, "Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments," in Groups, Leadership, and Men: Research in Human Relations, ed. Harold Guetzkow (Oxford: Carnegie, 1951), pp. 177-190.
115. S. E. Asch, "Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments," in Groups, Leadership, and Men: Research in Human Relations, ed. Harold Guetzkow (Oxford: Carnegie, 1951), pp. 177-190; and Richard S. Crutchfield, "Conformity and Character," Amer. Psychol., 1955, 10:191-198.
116. See, e.g., Lipset, Political Man (cit. n. 20).
117. M. Brewster Smith, "Review of T. W. Adorno, E. Frenkel-Brunswik, D. J. Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality," J. Abnormal Soc. Psychol., 1950, 45:775-779.
118. For a historical analysis that drew on similar models see Richard Hofstadter and Wilson Smith, eds., American Higher Education: A Documentary History (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1961).
119. Samelson, "Authoritarianism from Berlin to Berkeley" (cit. n. 24).
120. Edward Shils, "Authoritarianism: 'Right' and 'Left,'" in Studies in the Scope and Method of The Authoritarian Personality, ed. Christie and Jahoda (cit. n. 29), pp. 24-49.
121. For linkages of Communism and Fascism see, e.g., Seymour Martin Lipset, "The Sources of the 'Radical Right'" (1955), in The Radical Right: The New American Right, Expanded and Updated, ed. Daniel Bell (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964), pp. 307-371, esp. p. 327.
122. For general discussion of this phenomenon see Les K. Adler and Thomas G. Paterson, "Red Fascism: The Merger of Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia in the American Image of Totalitarianism, 1930s-1950s," American Historical Review, 1970, 75:1046 -1064.
123. Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind: Investigations into the Nature of Belief Systems and Personality Systems (New York: Basic, 1960), pp. 76, 77, 80.
124. Ibid., pp. 75, 76.
125. "Port Huron Statement" (cit. n. 17), p. 330.
126. Rokeach, Open and Closed Mind (cit. n. 37), pp. 83-84.
127. The first issues of Cognition (1972), a journal devoted to the experimental and philosophical study of cognitive psychology, are examples. These issues provided systematic critique of studies of racial differences in IQ and contained criticism of researchers, such as Arthur Jensen and Richard Herrnstein, who published on these topics as racist ideologues.
128. James Sidanius, "Cognitive Functioning and Sociopolitical Ideology Revisited," Polit. Psychol., 1985, 6:637- 661. For later analyses that consider Rokeach's work.
129. For later analyses that consider Rokeach's work see Kevin Durrheim, "Theoretical Conundrum: The Politics and Science of Theorizing Authoritarian Cognition," ibid., 1997, 18:625- 647. (Pubitemid 127338239)
130. Samelson, "Authoritarian Character from Berlin to Berkeley and Beyond" (cit. n. 24).
131. Lipset, Political Man (cit. n. 20).
132. Lipset, Political Man (cit. n. 20); and Giuseppe Di Palma and Herbert McClosky, "Personality and Conformity: The Learning of Political Attitudes," Amer. Polit. Sci. Rev., 1970, 64:1054-1073.
133. The connections between the CIA and Hofstadter are discussed in David S. Brown, Richard Hofstadter: An Intellectual Biography (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 2006), pp. 150-152. Lipset's contribution to The Radical Right initially appeared as a Fund for the Republic pamphlet.
134. David Riesman and Nathan Glazer, "The Intellectuals and the Discontented Classes" (1955), in Radical Right, ed. Bell (cit. n. 36), pp. 105-135, on p. 110.
135. Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination: Essays on Literature and Society (New York: Viking, 1950).
136. Brown, Richard Hofstadter, p. 148 (quoting Ross). The lack of concerted attention given to conservatism is discussed in Alan Brinkley, "The Problem of American Conservatism," Amer. Hist. Rev., 1994, 99:409-429.
137. Educational Policies Commission, American Education and International Tensions (cit. n. 22), p. 16.
138. See, e.g., Bell, End of Ideology (cit. n. 8).
139. Boorstin, Genius of American Politics (cit. n. 2).
140. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1949).
141. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., "Ideology vs. Democracy" (text of a speech before the Indian Council on World Affairs, New Delhi, 15 Feb. 1962).
142. Papers of J. Robert Oppenheimer, Box 65, Folder: "Schlesinger, Arthur," Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. On the CCF
143. On the CCF see Peter Coleman, The Liberal Conspiracy: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for Mind in Postwar Europe (New York: Free Press, 1989).
144. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., "Ideology vs. Democracy" (text of a speech before the Indian Council on World Affairs, New Delhi, 15 Feb. 1962), Papers of J. Robert Oppenheimer, Box 65, Folder: "Schlesinger, Arthur," Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. On the CCF see Peter Coleman, The Liberal Conspiracy: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for Mind in Postwar Europe (New York: Free Press, 1989)
145. Christopher Lasch, "The Cultural Cold War: A Short History of the Congress for Cultural Freedom," in Towards a New Past: Dissenting Essays in American History, ed. Barton J. Bernstein (New York: Pantheon, 1968), pp. 322-359, esp. pp. 332-334.
146. Educational Policies Commission, cit. n. 22.
147. Educational Policies Commission, American Education and International Tensions (cit. n. 22), p. 40. For discussion of Hook's and Lovejoy's views that Communists could not think for themselves see Ellen Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1986), pp. 105-106.
148. McGeorge Bundy, testimony delivered to the Subcommittee on the Reorganization of the Committee on Government Operations of the U.S. Senate, 84th Cong., 1st sess., 15 Mar. 1955. One such individual-suspect because he had supported Henry Wallace's 1948 presidential campaign-was Everett Mendolsohn, then a graduate student in history of science. See Schrecker, No Ivory Tower, p. 260.
149. Raymond B. Allen, "Communists Should Not Teach in American Colleges," Educational Forum, 1949, 13:433- 440, on pp. 433-435. Significantly, Allen held that people who believed in Marxism could be teachers but that members of the Communist Party could not.
150. J. G. Schimek, "Creative Originality: Its Evaluation by Use of Free-Expression Tests" (Ph.D. diss., Univ. California, Berkeley, 1954), p. 44.
151. cited in Donald W. MacKinnon, "IPAR's Contribution to the Conceptualization and Study of Creativity," in Perspectives in Creativity, ed. Irving A. Taylor and Jacob W. Getzels (Chicago: Aldine, 1975), pp. 60-89, on pp. 64-65.
152. See also Frank Barron, Creativity and Psychological Health: Origins of Personal Vitality and Creative Freedom (Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1963).
153. Frenkel-Brunswik, "Tolerance toward Ambiguity as a Personality Variable" (cit. n. 28).
154. Lawrence S. Kubie, "Blocks to Creativity," in Explorations in Creativity, ed. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik (New York: Harper & Row, 1967), pp. 33-43.
155. Abraham H. Maslow, "Creativity in Self-Actualizing People," in Creativity and Its Cultivation, ed. Harold H. Anderson (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), pp. 83-95.
156. Abraham H. Maslow, "Creativity in Self-Actualizing People," in Creativity and Its Cultivation, ed. Harold H. Anderson (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), pp. 83-95; and Rokeach, Open and Closed Mind (cit. n. 37), p. 58.
157. Frenkel-Brunswik, "Comprehensive Scores and Summary of Interview Results" (cit. n. 28), p. 466.
158. Levinson, "Study of Ethnocentric Ideology" (cit. n. 32), p. 150.
159. See also Frenkel-Brunswik, "Tolerance toward Ambiguity as a Personality Variable.".
160. Herbert Gutman, "The Biological Roots of Creativity," Genetic Psychology Monographs, 1961, 64:419-458, rpt. in Explorations in Creativity, ed. Mooney and Razik (cit. n. 52), pp. 3-32, on p. 3.
161. Arthur Koestler, The Act of Creation (New York: Macmillan, 1964).
162. Koestler, Darkness at Noon (New York: Macmillan, 1941).
163. Koestler, The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe (London: Hutchinson, 1959).
164. This particular individual disagreed with the connection between creativity and democracy, arguing that the Soviet Union's success in producing innovative science was a product of its investment in education, research, and development. Situated as he was in the Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency, this commentator had a personal stake in connecting creative ideas not to democracy but to monetary investments. See N. E. Golovin, "The Creative Person in Science," in Scientific Creativity: Its Recognition and Development, ed. Calvin W. Taylor and Frank Barron (New York/London: Wiley, 1963), pp. 7-23, on p. 20.
165. For discussion of the defense of bourgeois society by formerly radical intellectuals see Neil Jumonville, Critical Crossings: The New York Intellectuals in Postwar America (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1991), pp. 221-229.
166. For discussion of the defense of bourgeois society by formerly radical intellectuals see Neil Jumonville, Critical Crossings: The New York Intellectuals in Postwar America (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1991), pp. 221-229. A continuation of this defense of bourgeois values and the associated charge that cultural radicals lacked true creativity can be found in Daniel Bell, "The Sensibility of the Sixties," in The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic, 1976), pp. 120-143.
167. B. Clark, "You Can Learn to Think Creatively," Reader's Digest, 1960, 77:66 -70.
168. C. Burt, "Eugenics: Intelligence and Genius," British Medical Bulletin, 1949, 6:78 -79.
169. E. Kretschmer, "The Breeding of the Mental Endowments of Genius," Psychiatric Quarterly, 1930, 4:74-80.
170. Lewis M. Terman, ed., Genetic Studies of Genius, 4 vols. (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1925-1957).
171. There were, of course, exceptions to this large American trend of studies on the environmental etiology of creativity. The British psychologist Charles Spearman, for instance, saw creativity as genetic; see Charles Edward Spearman, Creative Mind (New York: Appleton, 1931).
172. Barron, Creativity and Psychological Health (cit. n. 52).
173. X. Francotte, "La genie et la folie," Revue Generale (1890).
174. P. Funatoli, Il genio e la follia (Siena: Ancora, 1885).
175. Lawrence S. Kubie, Neurotic Distortions of the Creative Processes (Lawrence: Univ. Kansas Press, 1958).
176. Donald W. MacKinnon, "The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent," Amer. Psychol., 1962, 17:484-495.
177. Jeannette Marks, Genius and Disaster: Studies in Drugs and Genius (New York: Adelphi, 1925).
178. J. F. Nisbet, The Insanity of Genius (New York: Scribner's, 1912).
179. R. K. White, "Note on the Psychopathology of Genius," J. Soc. Psychol., 1930, 1:311-315.
180. For interesting discussion of the historical connections between isolation and insightful thinking see Martin Kusch, "Recluse, Interlocutor, Interrogator: Natural and Social Order in Turn-of-the-Century Psychological Research Schools," Isis, 1995, 86:419-439.
181. Steven Shapin, "'The Mind Is Its Own Place': Science and Solitude in Seventeenth-Century England," Sci. Context, 1991, 4:191-218.
182. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik, "Preface," in Explorations in Creativity, ed. Mooney and Razik (cit. n. 52), pp. ix-x (comparing numbers of creativity studies).
183. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik, "Preface," in Explorations in Creativity, ed. Mooney and Razik (cit. n. 52), pp. ix-x (comparing numbers of creativity studies); and Razik, Bibliography of Creativity Studies and Related Areas (Buffalo: State Univ. New York, 1965).
184. G. Brown, "An Experiment in the Teaching of Creativity," School Review, 1964, 72:437- 450.
185. H. W. Gabriel, "On Teaching Creative Engineering," Journal of Engineering Education, 1955, 45:794-801.
186. G. Brown, "An Experiment in the Teaching of Creativity," School Review, 1964, 72:437- 450; H. W. Gabriel, "On Teaching Creative Engineering," Journal of Engineering Education, 1955, 45:794-801; and H. Gammon, "Some Practical Techniques for Increasing Creativity in Engineering," Plant Maintenance and Engineering, 1960, 21:25-27.
187. John C. Flanagan, "The Definition and Measurement of Ingenuity," in Scientific Creativity, ed. Taylor and Barron (cit. n. 55), pp. 89-98.
188. Golovin, "Creative Person in Science" (cit. n. 55).
189. John C. Flanagan, "The Definition and Measurement of Ingenuity," in Scientific Creativity, ed. Taylor and Barron (cit. n. 55), pp. 89-98; Golovin, "Creative Person in Science" (cit. n. 55); and Jack D. Summerfield and Lorlyn Thatcher, "Preface," in The Creative Mind and Method: Exploring the Nature of Creativeness in American Arts, Sciences, and Professions, ed. Summerfield and Thatcher, with commentary by Lyman Bryson (Austin: Univ. Texas Press, 1960), pp. vii-x.
190. L. R. Bittel, "Brainstorming: Better Way to Solve Plant Problems," Factory Management, 1956, 114:98-107.
191. H. R. Wallace, "Creative Thinking: A Factor in Sales Productivity," Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 1961, 9:223-226.
192. C. H. Greenwalt, The Uncommon Man: The Individual in the Organization (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959).
193. Jerome S. Bruner, "The Conditions of Creativity," in Contemporary Approaches to Creative Thinking, ed. Howard E. Gruber, Glenn Terrell, and Michael Wertheimer (New York: Atherton, 1962), pp. 1-30.
194. D. Cohen, J. W. Whitmyre, and W. H. Funk, "Effect of Group Cohesiveness and Training on Creative Thinking," Journal of Applied Psychology, 1960, 44:319 -322.
195. Donald W. Taylor, Thinking (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Department of Psychology, 1962).
196. Summerfield and Thatcher, "Preface" (cit. n. 61), pp. vii, viii.
197. Other members of the intellectual establishment expressed similar reactions to the Beats. Among them were Daniel Bell and the contributors to Commentary and Partisan Review. See Bell, "America as a Mass Society" (cit. n. 12), pp. 35-36.
198. Jumonville, Critical Crossings (cit. n. 56), pp. 186-193.
199. Richard Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 1940s and 1950s (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), pp. 377-380.
200. Bryson, Science and Freedom (cit. n. 2), p. x.
201. Summerfield and Thatcher, "Preface," p. ix.
202. Riesman, Lonely Crowd (cit. n. 6), p. 246.
203. Paul Goodman, Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized System (New York: Random House, 1960).
204. Richard S. Crutchfield, "Conformity and Creative Thinking," in Contemporary Approaches to Creative Thinking, ed. Gruber et al. (cit. n. 63), pp. 120-140, on p.126.
205. Daniel Horowitz, Betty Friedan and the Making of The Feminine Mystique: The American Left, the Cold War, and Modern Feminism (Amherst: Univ. Massachusetts Press, 1998), pp. 172-176. For a similar argument about the counterconformity of juvenile delinquents.
206. For a similar argument about the counterconformity of juvenile delinquents see Albert Kircidel Cohen, Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1955).
207. Lindsay R. Harmon, "The Development of a Criterion of Scientific Competence," in Scientific Creativity, ed. Taylor and Barron (cit. n. 55), pp. 44-52, esp. p. 45.
208. Sanford, "Personal Account of the Study of Authoritarianism" (cit. n. 24).
209. Barron, Creativity and Psychological Health (cit. n. 52), p. 12.
210. Crutchfield, "Conformity and Creative Thinking" (cit. n. 66), p. 130.
211. Frank Barron, "Complexity-Simplicity as a Personality Dimension," J. Abnormal Soc. Psychol., 1953, 48:163-172.
212. Frances Stonor Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London: Granta, 1999), pp. 252-278 (on the exhibits in Europe).
213. Erika Doss, "The Art of Cultural Politics: From Regionalism to Abstract Expressionism," in Recasting America, ed. May (cit. n. 3), pp. 195-220.
214. Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art: Abstract Expressionism, Freedom, and the Cold War (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1983).
215. In eighty-nine studies of regional variation, seventy-seven followed these lines and confirmed expectations. Twelve studies did not confirm expected variation in authoritarianism by region. See Jos D. Meloen, "The F Scale as a Predictor of Fascism: An Overview of Forty Years of Authoritarianism," in Strength and Weakness, ed. Stone et al. (cit. n. 24), pp. 47-69, esp. p. 59.
216. On the inverse correlation see Richard Christie, "Authoritarianism Reexamined," in Studies in the Scope and Method of The Authoritarian Personality, ed. Christie and Jahoda (cit. n. 29), pp. 123-196, esp. pp. 168-170.;
217. Sanford, "Personal Account of the Study of Authoritarianism" (cit. n. 24) (for the differences between freshmen and seniors see p. 213).
218. Sanford, "Personal Account of the Study of Authoritarianism" (cit. n. 24) (for the differences between freshmen and seniors see p. 213).
219. Adorno et al., Authoritarian Personality (cit. n. 24), p. 95.
220. Quotations from TAP are reproduced and criticisms thereof may be found in Hyman and Sheatsley, "The Authoritarian Personality-A Methodological Critique," p. 95.
221. Else Frenkel-Brunswik, "Further Explorations by a Contributor to The Authoritarian Personality," in Studies in the Scope and Method of The Authoritarian Personality, ed. Christie and Jahoda (cit. n. 29), pp. 226-275, on p. 233.
222. Lipset, Political Man (cit. n. 20).
223. Seymour Martin Lipset, "Three Decades of the Radical Right: Coughlinites, McCarthyites, and Birchers," in Radical Right, ed. Bell (cit. n. 36), pp. 373-446.
224. Lipset;s other chapter in this volume-"Sources of the 'Radical Right'" [cit. n. 36]-was initially published in 1955.
225. Michael Paul Rogin, The Intellectuals and McCarthy: The Radical Specter (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1967).
226. Richard Christie, "Some Experimental Approaches to Authoritarianism, I: A Retrospective Perspective on the Einstellung (Rigidity?) Paradigm," in Strength and Weakness, ed. Stone et al. (cit. n. 24), pp. 70-98, on p. 88.
227. William S. Schlamm, "150 Drawings-But Out of This World," National Review, 23 May 1956, 2:18.
228. Schlamm, "The Self-Importance of Picasso," ibid., 13 July 1957, 4:65-66.
229. Sarah Schrank, "The Art of the City: Modernism, Censorship, and the Emergence of Los Angeles's Postwar Art Scene," Amer. Quart., 2004, 56:663- 691.
230. See also Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (New York: Vintage, 1992), p. 63.
231. William F. Buckley and Brent Bozell, McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning (Chicago: Regnery, 1954).
232. Buckley, God and Man at Yale: The Superstitions of Academic Freedom (Chicago: Regnery, 1951).
233. For the review see McGeorge Bundy, " The Attack on Yale, " Atlantic, Nov. 1951, pp. 50-52. An undated memo from the Yale Office of University Development to members of the University Committee on Endowments and Gifts calls Bundy's review (copies of which it circulated) a " complete and convincing answer" to Buckley: a copy of the memo is in the McGeorge Bundy Personal Papers, Box 24, Folder: " God and Man at Yale" (1 of 2), John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, Massachusetts.
234. McGeorge Bundy, " McGeorge Bundy Replies, " Atlantic, Dec. 1951, pp. 82, 84, on p. 84.
235. For an example of the link drawn between Catholic pedagogy and authoritarianism by Dewey and his disciples see The Authoritarian Attempt to Capture Education: Papers from the Second Conference on the Scientific Spirit and Democratic Faith (New York: King's Crown, 1945).
236. More broadly, on the division between an empirical and secular approach to learning and culture as opposed to one based on religious values-and the shift of the American academy to favor the former-see David A. Hollinger, Science, Jews, and Secular Culture: Studies in Mid-Twentieth-Century Intellectual History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1996).
237. David A. Hollinger, " Science as a Weapon in Kulturkämpfe in the United States during and after World War II, " Isis, 1995, 86:440-454.
238. John T. McGreevy, " Thinking on One's Own: Catholicism in the American Intellectual Imagination, 1928-1960, " J. Amer. Hist., 1997, 84:97-131.
239. Sidney Hook, Reason, Social Myths, and Democracy (1940.
240. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1991), pp. 76, 79.
241. Frank Barron, Creativity and Personal Freedom (Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1968).
242. Mac Kinnon, " IPAR's Contribution to the Conceptualization and Study of Creativity" (cit. n. 52), p. 77.
243. Ross L. Mooney, " Groundwork for Creative Research, " Amer. Psychol., 1954, 9:544 -548. Creativity has been just one systematic means of ranking individuals. Beyond " intelligence, " other mechanisms have included " merit" and " character." The latter two terms functioned as devices for colleges that found intelligence and academic ability insufficient means for keeping their populations wealthy and Protestant. On merit, intelligence, and exclusion.
244. John Carson, The Measure of Merit: Talents, Intelligence, and Inequality in the French and American Republics, 1750-1940 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 2006).
245. Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005).
246. On Terman and gender norms see Jill G. Morawski, " Impossible Experiments and Practical Constructions: The Social Bases of Psychologists' Work, " in The Rise of Experimentation in American Psychology, ed. Morawski (New Haven, Conn./London: Yale Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 72-93. Regarding academic psychologists' screening of their students.
247. Christie, " Authoritarianism Reexamined" (cit. n. 73), p. 154.
248. Meloen, " F Scale as a Predictor of Fascism" (cit. n. 72), p. 49.
249. On the virtues of interdisciplinarity see Jamie Cohen-Cole, " Instituting the Science of Mind: Intellectual Economies and Disciplinary Exchange at Harvard's Center for Cognitive Studies, " British Journal for the History of Science, 2007, 40:567-597.
250. Cohen-Cole, " Interdisciplinarity and Anti-Boundary Work: Presentation of the Creative Scientific Self in Twentieth-Century Social Science, " paper presented at a conference on " New Perspectives on the Disciplines: Comparative Studies in Higher Education, " Franke Center for the Humanities, Univ. Chicago, 2006.
251. On the perceived significance of small groups see, e.g., Sidney Verba, Small Groups and Political Behavior: A Study of Leadership (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1961). For discussion of the content- and context-free nature of small group studies, as well as the rise and fall of that approach.
252. Greenwood, Disappearance of the Social in American Social Psychology (cit. n. 7), pp. 185-215.
253. Joseph E. McGrath, " Small Group Research, That Once and Future Field: An Interpretation of the Past with an Eye to the Future, " Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 1997, 1:7-27.
254. See, e.g., Robert F. Bales, " How People Interact in Conferences, " Scientific American, 1955, 192:31-55.
255. D. G. Marquis, Harold Guetzkow, and R. W. Heyns, " A Social Psychological Study of the Decision-Making Conference, " in Groups, Leadership, and Men, ed. Guetzkow (cit. n. 33), pp. 55-67.
256. For discussion of the United Nations and its relationship to small group research see Margaret Mead and Paul Byers, The Small Conference: An Innovation in Communication (The Hague/Paris: Mouton, 1968).
257. The Macy conferences are detailed in Jean-Pierre Dupuy, The Mechanization of the Mind: On the Origins of Cognitive Science (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 2000).
258. Steve J. Heims, The Cybernetics Group: Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America (Cambridge, Mass./London: MIT Press, 1991).
259. Margaret Mead, " Preface, " in Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, with Photographic and Other Illustrations: With a Preface by Margaret Mead (New York: Philosophical Library, 1955), pp. v-vi, on p. vi.
260. The proceedings, first published in early 1965 (and later released in book form), indicate that the conference occurred about a year earlier. The participants were Daniel Bell, Frederick Burkhardt, Douglas Bush, Bruce Chalmers, Benjamin DeMott, Lillian Hellman, Hudson Hoagland, Gerald Holton, Gyorgy Kepes, Leon Kirchner, Harold Lasswell, William Letwin, Herbert Marcuse, Margaret Mead, Robert Merton, Elting Morison, Robert Morison, F. S. C. Northrop, Talcott Parsons, Don K. Price, Edward Purcell, W. V. O. Quine, I. A. Richards, Walter Rosenblith, B. F. Skinner, Krister Stendahl, Julius Stratton, George Wald, and Harry Woolf. See " Preface to the Issue, " Daedalus, 1965, 94(1):iii-iv.
261. See Daniel Bell, " The Disjunction of Culture and Social Structure: Some Notes on the Meaning of Social Reality, " in Science and Culture: A Study of Cohesive and Disjunctive Forces, ed. Gerald Holton (Boston: Beacon, 1967), pp. 235-250, on p. 244.
262. Daniel Bell, this essay first appeared, under the same title, in Daedalus, 1965, 94:208 -222.
263. James S. Ackerman, " On Scientia, " in Science and Culture, ed. Holton, pp. 14-23, on p. 19. Ackerman's sense of the creativity of interdisciplinarity also appeared in his analysis of the relative architectural skills of Michelangelo and Antonio da Sangallo the Younger.
264. see Ackerman, The Architecture of Michelangelo (New York: Viking, 1961), pp. xxxiii-xxxiv.
265. Gerald Holton, " The Thematic Imagination in Science, " in Science and Culture, ed. Holton, pp. 88-108.
266. Holton, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1988).
267. W. W. Rostow, " The National Style, " in American Style, ed. Morison (cit. n. 2), pp. 246-313. On the elite theory of democracy in postwar political science.
268. See Gilman, Mandarins of the Future (cit. n. 1), pp. 47-56.
269. General Education in a Free Society (cit. n. 14), p. 54.
270. Jacob Bronowski, Science and Human Values (New York: Messner, 1956).
271. For a discussion of the pervasiveness of this practice see Dennis Wrong, " The United States in Comparative Perspective: Max Lerner's America as a Civilization, " American Journal of Sociology, 1960, 65:499-604. Wrong suggests that disciplines treating themselves as nations would fulfill Emile Durkheim's hopes for the management of anomie in mass society.
272. Harry H. Harman, The Psychologist in Interdisciplinary Research (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1955).
273. Margaret B. Luszki, Interdisciplinary Team Research: Methods and Problems (Washington, D.C.: National Training Laboratories, 1958).
274. For a complacent comment on Chicago's social sciences see Leonard D. White, " Introduction, " in The State of the Social Sciences, ed. White (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1956), pp. v-xi, on p. ix. For similar remarks about the unity in diversity of the social sciences more generally.
275. Robert K. Merton, " The Mosaic of the Behavioral Sciences, " in The Behavioral Sciences Today, ed. Bernard Berelson (New York: Basic, 1963), pp. 247-272.
276. Mary Catherine Bateson, " Notes on Varieties of Unification, " n.d. (evidence in other documents indicates ca. 1968), Papers of Ruth Nanda Anshen, Box 15 (no folder), Columbia University Archives, New York.
277. John Gillin, " Grounds for a Science of Social Man, " in For a Science of Social Man, ed. Gillin (New York: Macmillan, 1954), pp. 3-13, on p. 4. On anti-Semitism in the fields of psychology and history.
278. Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The " Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 172-173.
279. Andrew S. Winston, " 'As His Name Indicates': R. S. Woodworth's Letters of Reference and Employment for Jewish Psychologists in the 1930s, " Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 1996, 32:30-43.
280. Winston, " The Defects of His Race: E. G. Boring and Antisemitism in American Psychology, " History of Psychology, 1998, 1:27-51. On the move of non-Protestants into academic life.
281. see David A. Hollinger, " Jewish Intellectuals and the De-Christianization of American Public Culture in the Twentieth Century, " in Science, Jews, and Secular Culture (cit. n. 83), pp. 17-41.
282. Gillin, " Grounds for a Science of Social Man, " p. 5. For other instances of the equation of interdisciplinarity with social toleration.
283. Gordon W. Allport, " The Psychologist's Frame of Reference, " Psychol. Bull., 1940, 37:1-28.
284. Locke, " Pluralism and Intellectual Democracy" (cit. n. 2).
285. Marshall K. Powers, " Area Studies, " J. Higher Edu., 1955, 26:82- 89, 113.
286. For an explicit statement of this sentiment see Mead and Byers, Small Conference (cit. n. 90), pp. 5-6.
287. J. Robert Oppenheimer, " The Growth of Science and the Structure of Culture: Comments on Dr. Frank's Paper, " in Science and the Modern Mind, ed. Gerald Holton (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1958), p. 73. For further discussion of Oppenheimer's call for cultural integration through intimate discussion.
288. Charles Thorpe, Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 2006), pp. 273-280.
289. Raphael Demos, Supplement 18A, pp. 7-8, 22, Committee on General Education in a Free Society, Harvard University Archives, UA I 10.528.10.
290. James B. Conant, " Foreword, " in Thomas S. Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1957), pp. xiii-xviii, on pp. xii. The belief that modern society was held together by the ability of people who possess different forms of expertise to communicate with one another provided the basisfor several books on education and on the public understanding of science, two topics on which Conant was a nationally recognized expert.
291. See Conant, The American High School Today (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957).
292. Conant, Modern Science and Modern Man (New York: Doubleday, 1952).
293. Conant, Science and Common Sense (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1951).
294. Keith Michael Baker, Condorcet: From Natural Philosophy to Social Mathematics (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1975).
295. Robert B. Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1991). For a recent instance of political theory that places debate at the center of citizenship and political life.
296. see Amy Gutmann and Dennis F. Thompson, Democracy and Disagreement (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1996).
297. See, e.g., Jürgen Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society (Boston: Beacon, 1979).
298. Dennis F. Thompson, The Democratic Citizen: Social Science and Democratic Theory in the Twentieth Century (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1970).
299. Robert Ulich, 16 and 23 Feb. 1943, Meeting Minutes, Committee on the Objectives of a General Education in a Free Society, Box 3, Folder " Comm on General Education minutes through May 1943, " Harvard University Archives, UA I 10.528.10.
300. Some readers of the final report indicated an awareness of the goal of synthesis but charged that the Harvard committee had in fact achieved only incoherent eclecticism. See Clarence H. Faust, " The Problem of General Education: An Account of the College of the University of Chicago, " in The Idea and Practice of General Education (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1950), pp. 3-24, on p. 13.
301. Sidney Hook, " Synthesis or Eclecticism, " Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 1946, 7:214 -225. For discussion of this debate in the context of the collegiate curriculum.
302. Edward A. Purcell, Jr., The Crisis of Democratic Theory: Scientific Naturalism and the Problem of Values (Lexington: Univ. Press Kentucky, 1972), pp. 147-152.
303. This questioning of the " pragmatist solution" occurred in the context of an argument that placed it as one of four existing ways to unite a curriculum. The others were the program (offered mostly by Catholic colleges) that sought to provide unity though Christianity, a liberal arts program based on the Western tradition, and, finally, a curriculum based on the practical problems of modern life. This final option was one that many read as " Deweyan" or " progressive." All four approaches were deemed insufficient as unifying principles for American general education. They were listed as a preamble to, and foils for, the program advocated by Harvard's committee. See General Education in a Free Society (cit. n. 14), p. 40.
304. Ibid., pp. 154-155, 54. For some negative reviews of General Education in a Free Society
305. Boyd H. Bode, " The Harvard Report, " J. Higher Edu., 1946, 17:1- 8.
306. Hook, " Synthesis or Eclecticism" (cit. n. 111).
307. Harold Taylor, " Philosophical Aspects of the Harvard Report, " Phil. Phenomenolog. Res., 1946, 7:226 -239.
308. E.g., Henry David Aiken, " Revaluations: John Dewey's Darwinism, " New York Review of Books, 22 Apr. 1965.
309. Jerome S. Bruner, On Knowing: Essays for the Left Hand, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Mass./London: Harvard Univ. Press, 1979), pp. 113-126.
310. Rostow, " National Style" (cit. n. 96), p. 309. On " Deweyan" as an epithet.
311. John L. Rudolph, Scientists in the Classroom: The Cold War Reconstruction of American Science Education (New York: Palgrave, 2002), p. 120.
312. Discussion of the value of community and interdisciplinary conversation at the American Academy of Arts and Sciences can be found in its bulletin and in its house organ, Daedalus. See, e.g., " Academy Conferences, " Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1956, 10(1):2- 4.
313. " Summary of the Discussion at the Meeting on February 13, " ibid., 1952, 5(6):2. For discussion of the role of creativity and the avant-garde sensibility for the community at the RAND Corporation.
314. Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, The Worlds of Herman Kahn: The Intuitive Science of Thermonuclear War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 2005).
315. The members of the supper club included Elting Morison, Kingman Brewster, Max Millikan, George Homans, Myron Gilmore, Robert Lee Wolff, McGeorge Bundy, Victor Weisskopf, Edward Purcell, Edwin Land, Will Hawthorne, Julius Stratton, Wassily Leonteif, and Jerome Bruner. Occasional visitors such as Robert Oppenheimer, Ernst Gombrich, Walter Lippmann, Alfred Kazin, and Carl Kaysen joined the group for dinner and conversation.
316. Jerome S. Bruner, In Search of Mind: Essays in Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1983), p. 210.
317. Allan A. Needell, " Project Troy and the Cold War Annexation of the Social Sciences, " in Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War, ed. Christopher Simpson (New York: New Press, 1998), pp. 3-38.
318. Needell, " 'Truth Is Our Weapon': Project Troy, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relations in the National Security State, " Diplomatic History, 1993, 17:399-420.
319. Bruner, In Search of Mind, pp. 219-224, on p. 224.
320. Jerome Bruner interview, Mar. 1952, p. 10, Anne Roe Papers, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
321. On the presidential campaign policies see Richard Parker, John Kenneth Galbraith: His Life, His Politics, His Economics (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2005), pp. 251-252, 64-67. Initial plans for the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences stipulated that it, like the Institute for Advanced Study, would be populated by a long-term faculty and shorter-term visitors.
322. Meeting Minutes of the Informal Planning Group on the Center for Advanced Study, Papers of Paul H. Buck, Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, 1952-late 1960s, Folder: " Board Minutes, Group Minutes, " Harvard University Archives, HUG (FP) 9.20.
323. Morison, " Course of the Discussion" (cit. n. 15), pp. 395-396, 413-414.
324. Transcripts of the U.N.-sponsored conferences on how to run a conference may be found in Mary Capes, Communication or Conflict: Conferences: Their Nature, Dynamics, and Planning (New York: Association Press, 1960).
325. On similar policies of the Macy Foundation in sponsoring conferences the comments of Frank Freemont Smith in Heinz von Foerster, ed., Cybernetics: Circular, Causal, and Feedback Mechanisms in Biological and Social Systems: Tenth Annual Meeting (New York: Josiah Macy, Jr., Foundation, 1955), pp. 11-12.
326. Morison, " Course of the Discussion" (cit. n. 15), pp. 413-414.
327. Henry B. Phillips, " Smoker in the Lounge, " Bull. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci., 1953, 6(8):1. Substantive analysis of this question can also be found in contemporary publications.
328. e.g., Daniel Lerner, " The Social Sciences: Whence and Whither?" in Human Meaning of the Social Sciences, ed. Lerner (cit. n. 2), pp. 13-39.
329. Max Millikan, " Inquiry and Policy: The Relation of Knowledge to Action, " ibid., pp. 158-180.
330. Kai Bird, The Color of Truth: McGeorge Bundy and William Bundy, Brothers in Arms: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), p. 193.
331. " Ode to the Friday Evening on the Thursday Evening, " 28 Apr. 1960, Papers of Jerome Bruner, Correspondence, Box 3 of 4, Folder: " Bundy, McGeorge, " Harvard University Archives, HUG 4242.9. As to the relationships: McGeorge Bundy's brother William was married to Acheson's daughter Mary. The Bundy family's friendships with luminaries of the legal world paved the way for an invitation to McGeorge to clerk for Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, even though he had no formal legal training. When he declined the post it was offered to William, who did have a law degree but who also declined.
332. Bird, Color of Truth, pp. 100, 55.
333. For Bundy's comparison of Cuban counterrevolutionaries to Harvard professors who had been given their walking papers see David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Random House, 1972), p. 95.
334. For discussion of Bundy's own involvement in the Bay of Pigs operation, particularly his role in preventing views opposed to the operation from reaching the president, and the conclusion that he was not responsible for the operation's failure see Bird, Color of Truth, pp. 193-199.
335. Seymour Martin Lipset, Rebellion in the University (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971), p. 201. On the new views of creativity see Barron, Creativity and Personal Freedom (cit. n. 85).
336. Abraham H. Maslow, " The Creative Attitude, " in The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (New York: Viking, 1971), pp. 55-68, on p. 57.
337. Louis J. Rubin, " New Skills for a New Day, " in Life Skills in School and Society, ed. Rubin (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, National Education Association, 1969), pp. 1-33.
338. D. Whittaker and W. A. Watts, " Personality Characteristics of a Nonconformist Youth Subculture: A Study of the Berkeley Non-Student, " J. Soc. Issues, 1969, 25:65- 89. For discussion of the role of creativity at RAND.
339. Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, " Simulating the Unthinkable: Gaming Future War in the 1950s and 1960s, " Social Studies of Science, 2000, 30:163-223.