Coronary microvascular resistance: Methods for its quantification in humans

Basic Research in Cardiology

Volumn 104, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 485-498

  Knaapen, Paul ^a   Camici, Paolo G ^b   Marques, Koen M ^a   Nijveldt, Robin ^a   Bax, Jeroen J ^c   Westerhof, Nico ^a   Götte, Marco J W ^a   Jerosch Herold, Michael ^d   Schelbert, Heinrich R ^e   Lammertsma, Adriaan A ^a   van Rossum, Albert C ^a  

^a VU UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^b NATIONAL HEART AND LUNG INSTITUTE   (United Kingdom)

^c LEIDEN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^d BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Coronary microvascular resistance; Imaging; Perfusion

Indexed keywords

ECHO CONTRAST MEDIUM; GADOLINIUM;

ANGIOCARDIOGRAPHY; BLOOD FLOW VELOCITY; CONTRAST ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CORONARY ARTERY PRESSURE; CORONARY FLOW RESERVE; CORONARY VASCULAR RESISTANCE; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG SAFETY; FUNCTIONAL STATUS; HEART CATHETERIZATION; HEART MUSCLE BLOOD FLOW; HEART MUSCLE PERFUSION; HUMAN; IMAGE QUALITY; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; INVASIVE PROCEDURE; MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY; MICROANGIOPATHY; MICROBUBBLE; MICROVASCULARIZATION; NEPHROGENIC SYSTEMIC FIBROSIS; NON INVASIVE MEASUREMENT; NONHUMAN; PHARMACOLOGICAL PROCEDURES; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; REVIEW; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; THERMODILUTION;

CORONARY ANGIOGRAPHY; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CORONARY CIRCULATION; CORONARY VESSELS; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY, DOPPLER; FRACTIONAL FLOW RESERVE, MYOCARDIAL; HEART CATHETERIZATION; HEART FUNCTION TESTS; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MICROCIRCULATION; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; THERMODILUTION; VASCULAR RESISTANCE;

EID: 70349696712     PISSN: 03008428     EISSN: 14351803     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00395-009-0037-z     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Aarnoudse W, Fearon WF, Manoharan G, Geven M, van de Vosse F, Rutten M, De Bruyne B, Pijls NH (2004) Epicardial stenosis severity does not affect minimal microcirculatory resistance. Circulation 110:2137-2142
2. Aarnoudse W, Van't Veer M, Pijls NH, Ter Woorst J, Vercauteren S, Tonino P, Geven M, Rutten M, van Hagen E, de Bruyne B, van de Vosse F (2007) Direct volumetric blood flow measurement in coronary arteries by thermodilution. J Am Coll Cardiol 50:2294-2304
3. Aversano T, Klocke FJ, Mates RE, Canty JM Jr (1984) Preload-induced alterations in capacitance-free diastolic pressure-flow relationship. Am J Physiol 246:H410-H417
4. Ay T, Havaux X, Van Camp G, Campanelli B, Gisellu G, Pasquet A, Denef JF, Melin JA, Vanoverschelde JL (2001) Destruction of contrast microbubbles by ultrasound: Effects on myocardial function, coronary perfusion pressure, and microvascular integrity. Circulation 104:461-466
5. Bassenge E, Heusch G (1990) Endothelial and neuro-humoral control of coronary blood flow in health and disease. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 116:77-165
6. Baumgart D, Haude M, Gorge G, Liu F, Ge J, Grosse-Eggebrecht C, Erbel R, Heusch G (1999) Augmented alpha-adrenergic constriction of atherosclerotic human coronary arteries. Circulation 99:2090-2097
7. Bergmann SR, Herrero P, Markham J, Weinheimer CJ, Walsh MN (1989) Noninvasive quantitation of myocardial blood flow in human subjects with oxygen-15-labeled water and positron emission tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol 14:639-652
8. Boellaard R, Knaapen P, Rijbroek A, Luurtsema GJ, Lammertsma AA (2005) Evaluation of basis function and linear least squares methods for generating parametric blood flow images using 15O-water and Positron Emission Tomography. Mol Imaging Biol 7:273-285
9. Bol A, Melin JA, Vanoverschelde JL, Baudhuin T, Vogelaers D, De Pauw M, Michel C, Luxen A, Labar D, Cogneau M et al (1993) Direct comparison of [13N]ammonia and [15O]water estimates of perfusion with quantification of regional myocardial blood flow by microspheres. Circulation 87:512-525
10. Botnar RM, Nagel E (2008) Structural and functional imaging by MRI. Basic Res Cardiol 103:152-160
11. Braunwald E (1971) Control of myocardial oxygen consumption: Physiologic and clinical considerations. Am J Cardiol 27:416-432
12. Camici P, Marraccini P, Marzilli M, Lorenzoni R, Buzzigoli G, Puntoni R, Boni C, Bellina CR, Klassen GA, L'Abbate A et al (1989) Coronary hemodynamics and myocardial metabolism during and after pacing stress in normal humans. Am J Physiol 257:E309-E317
13. Camici PG, Crea F (2007) Coronary microvascular dysfunction. N Engl J Med 356:830-840
14. Cecchi F, Olivotto I, Gistri R, Lorenzoni R, Chiriatti G, Camici PG (2003) Coronary microvascular dysfunction and prognosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 349:1027-1035
15. Chareonthaitawee P, Kaufmann PA, Rimoldi O, Camici PG (2001) Heterogeneity of resting and hyperemic myocardial blood flow in healthy humans. Cardiovasc Res 50:151-161
16. Chilian WM (1997) Coronary microcirculation in health and disease. Summary of an NHLBI workshop. Circulation 95:522-528
17. Chilian WM (1991) Functional distribution of alpha 1- and alpha 2-adrenergic receptors in the coronary microcirculation. Circulation 84:2108-2122
18. Christian TF, Rettmann DW, Aletras AH, Liao SL, Taylor JL, Balaban RS, Arai AE (2004) Absolute myocardial perfusion in canines measured by using dual-bolus first-pass MR imaging. Radiology 232:677-684
19. De Bruyne B, Pijls NH, Smith L, Wievegg M, Heyndrickx GR (2001) Coronary thermodilution to assess flow reserve: Experimental validation. Circulation 104:2003-2006
20. Di Carli MF, Dorbala S, Meserve J, El Fakhri G, Sitek A, Moore SC (2007) Clinical myocardial perfusion PET/CT. J Nucl Med 48:783-793
21. Dijkmans PA, Knaapen P, Sieswerda GT, Aiazian E, Visser CA, Lammertsma AA, Visser FC, Kamp O (2006) Quantification of myocardial perfusion using intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography in healthy volunteers: Comparison with positron emission tomography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 19:285-293
22. Dijkmans PA, Visser CA, Kamp O (2005) Adverse reactions to ultrasound contrast agents: Is the risk worth the benefit? Eur J Echocardiogr 6:363-366
23. Donahue KM, Weisskoff RM, Burstein D (1997) Water diffusion and exchange as they influence contrast enhancement. J Magn Reson Imaging 7:102-110
24. Donahue KM, Weisskoff RM, Chesler DA, Kwong KK, Bogdanov AA Jr, Mandeville JB, Rosen BR (1996) Improving MR quantification of regional blood volume with intravascular T1 contrast agents: Accuracy, precision, and water exchange. Magn Reson Med 36:858-867
25. Doucette JW, Corl PD, Payne HM, Flynn AE, Goto M, Nassi M, Segal J (1992) Validation of a Doppler guide wire for intravascular measurement of coronary artery flow velocity. Circulation 85:1899-1911
26. Fearon WF, Balsam LB, Farouque HM, Caffarelli AD, Robbins RC, Fitzgerald PJ, Yock PG, Yeung AC (2003) Novel index for invasively assessing the coronary microcirculation. Circulation 107:3129-3132
27. Fokkema DS, VanTeeffelen JW, Dekker S, Vergroesen I, Reitsma JB, Spaan JA (2005) Diastolic time fraction as a determinant of subendocardial perfusion. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 288:H2450-H2456
28. Ganz W, Tamura K, Marcus HS, Donoso R, Yoshida S, Swan HJ (1971) Measurement of coronary sinus blood flow by continuous thermodilution in man. Circulation 44:181-195
29. Gimelli A, Schneider-Eicke J, Neglia D, Sambuceti G, Giorgetti A, Bigalli G, Parodi G, Pedrinelli R, Parodi O (1998) Homogeneously reduced versus regionally impaired myocardial blood flow in hypertensive patients: Two different patterns of myocardial perfusion associated with degree of hypertrophy. J Am Coll Cardiol 31:366-373
30. Goldstein TA, Jerosch-Herold M, Misselwitz B, Zhang H, Gropler RJ, Zheng J (2008) Fast mapping of myocardial blood flow with MR first-pass perfusion imaging. Magn Reson Med 59:1394-1400
31. Golish SR, Hove JD, Schelbert HR, Gambhir SS (2001) A fast nonlinear method for parametric imaging of myocardial perfusion by dynamic (13)N-ammonia PET. J Nucl Med 42:924-931
32. Gould KL (1988) Identifying and measuring severity of coronary artery stenosis. Quantitative coronary arteriography and positron emission tomography. Circulation 78:237-245
33. Graf K, Grafe M, Fleck E (2008) Cardiovascular diseases as target for imaging. Basic Res Cardiol 103:82-86
34. Gregorini L, Fajadet J, Robert G, Cassagneau B, Bernis M, Marco J (1994) Coronary vasoconstriction after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty is attenuated by antiadrenergic agents. Circulation 90:895-907
35. Gregorini L, Marco J, Farah B, Bernies M, Palombo C, Kozakova M, Bossi IM, Cassagneau B, Fajadet J, Di Mario C, Albiero R, Cugno M, Grossi A, Heusch G (2002) Effects of selective alpha1- and alpha2-adrenergic blockade on coronary flow reserve after coronary stenting. Circulation 106:2901-2907
36. Gregorini L, Marco J, Kozakova M, Palombo C, Anguissola GB, Marco I, Bernies M, Cassagneau B, Distante A, Bossi IM, Fajadet J, Heusch G (1999) Alpha-adrenergic blockade improves recovery of myocardial perfusion and function after coronary stenting in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 99:482-490
37. Gregorini L, Marco J, Palombo C, Kozakova M, Anguissola GB, Cassagneau B, Bernies M, Distante A, Marco I, Fajadet J, Zanchetti A (1998) Postischemic left ventricular dysfunction is abolished by alpha-adrenergic blocking agents. J Am Coll Cardiol 31:992-1001
38. Haude M, Caspari G, Baumgart D, Ehring T, Schulz R, Roth T, Koch L, Erbel R, Spiller P, Heusch G (2000) X-ray densitometry for the measurement of regional myocardial perfusion. Basic Res Cardiol 95:261-270
39. Heusch G, Baumgart D, Camici P, Chilian W, Gregorini L, Hess O, Indolfi C, Rimoldi O (2000) alpha-adrenergic coronary vasoconstriction and myocardial ischemia in humans. Circulation 101:689-694
40. Heusch G, Deussen A (1983) The effects of cardiac sympathetic nerve stimulation on perfusion of stenotic coronary arteries in the dog. Circ Res 53:8-15
41. Heusch G, Deussen A, Schipke J, Thamer V (1984) Alpha 1- and alpha 2-adrenoceptor-mediated vasoconstriction of large and small canine coronary arteries in vivo. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 6:961-968
42. Heusch G, Schulz R, Rahimtoola SH (2005) Myocardial hibernation: A delicate balance. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 288:H984-H999
43. Hoffman JI (1981) Why is myocardial ischaemia so commonly subendocardial? Clin Sci (Lond) 61:657-662
44. Hoffman JI, Spaan JA (1990) Pressure-flow relations in coronary circulation. Physiol Rev 70:331-390
45. Hsu LY, Kellman P, Arai AE (2008) Nonlinear myocardial signal intensity correction improves quantification of contrast-enhanced first-pass MR perfusion in humans. J Magn Reson Imaging 27:793-801
46. Hundley WG, Lange RA, Clarke GD, Meshack BM, Payne J, Landau C, McColl R, Sayad DE, Willett DL, Willard JE, Hillis LD, Peshock RM (1996) Assessment of coronary arterial flow and flow reserve in humans with magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 93:1502-1508
47. 15O and dynamic positron-emission tomography. Strategy for quantification in relation to the partial-volume effect. Circulation 78:104-115
48. Iida H, Tamura Y, Kitamura K, Bloomfield PM, Eberl S, Ono Y (2000) Histochemical correlates of (15)O-water-perfusable tissue fraction in experimental canine studies of old myocardial infarction. J Nucl Med 41:1737-1745
49. Indolfi C, Piscione F, Rapacciuolo A, Esposito G, Esposito N, Ceravolo R, Di Lorenzo E, Maione A, Condorelli M, Chiariello M (1994) Coronary artery vasoconstriction after successful single angioplasty of the left anterior descending artery. Am Heart J 128:858-864
50. Jagathesan R, Barnes E, Rosen SD, Foale RA, Camici PG (2006) Comparison of myocardial blood flow and coronary flow reserve during dobutamine and adenosine stress: Implications for pharmacologic stress testing in coronary artery disease. J Nucl Cardiol 13:324-332
51. Jerosch-Herold M, Seethamraju RT, Swingen CM, Wilke NM, Stillman AE (2004) Analysis of myocardial perfusion MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging 19:758-770
52. Jerosch-Herold M, Swingen C, Seethamraju RT (2002) Myocardial blood flow quantification with MRI by model-independent deconvolution. Med Phys 29:886-897
53. Julius BK, Vassalli G, Mandinov L, Hess OM (1999) Alpha-adrenoceptor blockade prevents exercise-induced vasoconstriction of stenotic coronary arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol 33:1499-1505
54. Kaufmann PA, Camici PG (2005) Myocardial blood flow measurement by PET: technical aspects and clinical applications. J Nucl Med 46:75-88
55. Kaufmann PA, Gnecchi-Ruscone T, Yap JT, Rimoldi O, Camici PG (1999) Assessment of the reproducibility of baseline and hyperemic myocardial blood flow measurements with 15O-labeled water and PET. J Nucl Med 40:1848-1856
56. Kern MJ, Lerman A, Bech JW, De Bruyne B, Eeckhout E, Fearon WF, Higano ST, Lim MJ, Meuwissen M, Piek JJ, Pijls NH, Siebes M, Spaan JA (2006) Physiological assessment of coronary artery disease in the cardiac catheterization laboratory: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Committee on Diagnostic and Interventional Cardiac Catheterization, Council on Clinical Cardiology. Circulation 114:1321-1341
57. Kim RJ, Fieno DS, Parrish TB, Harris K, Chen EL, Simonetti O, Bundy J, Finn JP, Klocke FJ, Judd RM (1999) Relationship of MRI delayed contrast enhancement to irreversible injury, infarct age, and contractile function. Circulation 100:1992-2002
58. Kim RJ, Wu E, Rafael A, Chen EL, Parker MA, Simonetti O, Klocke FJ, Bonow RO, Judd RM (2000) The use of contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging to identify reversible myocardial dysfunction. N Engl J Med 343:1445-1453
59. Klocke FJ, Mates RE, Canty JM Jr, Ellis AK (1985) Coronary pressure-flow relationships. Controversial issues and probable implications. Circ Res 56:310-323
60. Knaapen P, Boellaard R, Gotte MJ, van der Weerdt AP, Visser CA, Lammertsma AA, Visser FC (2003) The perfusable tissue index: A marker of myocardial viability. J Nucl Cardiol 10:684-691
61. Knaapen P, Germans T, Camici PG, Rimoldi OE, Ten Cate FJ, Ten Berg JM, Dijkmans PA, Boellaard R, van Dockum WG, Gotte MJ, Twisk JW, van Rossum AC, Lammertsma AA, Visser FC (2008) Determinants of coronary microvascular dysfunction in symptomatic hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 294:H986-H993
62. Knaapen P, Lubberink M (2008) Cardiac positron emission tomography: myocardial perfusion and metabolism in clinical practice. Clin Res Cardiol 97:791-796
63. Knaapen P, van Campen LM, de Cock CC, Gotte MJ, Visser CA, Lammertsma AA, Visser FC (2004) Effects of cardiac resynchronization therapy on myocardial perfusion reserve. Circulation 110:646-651
64. Kolyva C, Verhoeff BJ, Spaan JA, Piek JJ, Siebes M (2008) Increased diastolic time fraction as beneficial adjunct of alpha1-adrenergic receptor blockade after percutaneous coronary intervention. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 295:H2054-H2060
65. Kuhle WG, Porenta G, Huang SC, Buxton D, Gambhir SS, Hansen H, Phelps ME, Schelbert HR (1992) Quantification of regional myocardial blood flow using 13N-ammonia and reoriented dynamic positron emission tomographic imaging. Circulation 86:1004-1017
66. Kuo PH, Kanal E, Abu-Alfa AK, Cowper SE (2007) Gadolinium-based MR contrast agents and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Radiology 242:647-649
67. Li X, Springer SC, Jerosch-Herold M (2008) First-pass DCE-MRI with extravasating CR: Evidence for human myocardial capillary recruitment in adenosine-induced hyperemia. NMR Biomed 21
68. Lindner JR, Song J, Jayaweera AR, Sklenar J, Kaul S (2002) Microvascular rheology of Definity microbubbles after intra-arterial and intravenous administration. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 15:396-403
69. Lorenzoni R, Rosen SD, Camici PG (1996) Effect of alpha 1-adrenoceptor blockade on resting and hyperemic myocardial blood flow in normal humans. Am J Physiol 271:H1302-H1306
70. Marcus ML, Chilian WM, Kanatsuka H, Dellsperger KC, Eastham CL, Lamping KG (1990) Understanding the coronary circulation through studies at the microvascular level. Circulation 82:1-7
71. Marques KM, Knaapen P, Boellaard R, Lammertsma AA, Westerhof N, Visser FC (2007) Microvascular function in viable myocardium after chronic infarction does not influence fractional flow reserve measurements. J Nucl Med 48:1987-1992
72. Marques KM, Knaapen P, Boellaard R, Westerhof N, Lammertsma AA, Visser CA, Visser FC (2007) Hyperaemic microvascular resistance is not increased in viable myocardium after chronic myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 28:2320-2325
73. Mathey DG, Chatterjee K, Tyberg JV, Lekven J, Brundage B, Parmley WW (1978) Coronary sinus reflux. A source of error in the measurement of thermodilution coronary sinus flow. Circulation 57:778-786
74. Meier P, Zierler KL (1954) On the theory of the indicator-dilution method for measurement of blood flow and volume. J Appl Physiol 6:731-744
75. Meuwissen M, Siebes M, Chamuleau SA, van Eck-Smit BL, Koch KT, de Winter RJ, Tijssen JG, Spaan JA, Piek JJ (2002) Hyperemic stenosis resistance index for evaluation of functional coronary lesion severity. Circulation 106:441-446
76. Mosher P, Ross J Jr, McFate PA, Shaw RF (1964) Control of coronary blood flow by an autoregulatory mechanism. Circ Res 14:250-259
77. Nagamachi S, Czernin J, Kim AS, Sun KT, Bottcher M, Phelps ME, Schelbert HR (1996) Reproducibility of measurements of regional resting and hyperemic myocardial blood flow assessed with PET. J Nucl Med 37:1626-1631
78. Neglia D, Michelassi C, Trivieri MG, Sambuceti G, Giorgetti A, Pratali L, Gallopin M, Salvadori P, Sorace O, Carpeggiani C, Poddighe R, L'Abbate A, Parodi O (2002) Prognostic role of myocardial blood flow impairment in idiopathic left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 105:186-193
79. Nitzsche EU, Choi Y, Czernin J, Hoh CK, Huang SC, Schelbert HR (1996) Noninvasive quantification of myocardial blood flow in humans. A direct comparison of the [13N]ammonia and the [15O]water techniques. Circulation 93:2000-2006
80. Otani K, Masuda K, Asanuma T, Ishikura F, Beppu S (2006) Corrected quantification method to determine myocardial blood flow using real-time myocardial contrast echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 19:973-981
81. Petersen SE, Jerosch-Herold M, Hudsmith LE, Robson MD, Francis JM, Doll HA, Selvanayagam JB, Neubauer S, Watkins H (2007) Evidence for microvascular dysfunction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: New insights from multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 115:2418-2425
82. Pijls NH, De Bruyne B, Smith L, Aarnoudse W, Barbato E, Bartunek J, Bech GJ, Van De Vosse F (2002) Coronary thermodilution to assess flow reserve: Validation in humans. Circulation 105:2482-2486
83. Plein S, Kozerke S, Suerder D, Luescher TF, Greenwood JP, Boesiger P, Schwitter J (2008) High spatial resolution myocardial perfusion cardiac magnetic resonance for the detection of coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J [epub ahead of print]
84. Plein S, Schwitter J, Suerder D, Greenwood JP, Boesiger P, Kozerke S (2008) k-Space and time sensitivity encoding-accelerated myocardial perfusion MR imaging at 3.0 T: Comparison with 1.5 T. Radiology 249:493-500
85. Rajappan K, Rimoldi OE, Dutka DP, Ariff B, Pennell DJ, Sheridan DJ, Camici PG (2002) Mechanisms of coronary microcirculatory dysfunction in patients with aortic stenosis and angiographically normal coronary arteries. Circulation 105:470-476
86. Rimoldi O, Schafers KP, Boellaard R, Turkheimer F, Stegger L, Law MP, Lammerstma AA, Camici PG (2006) Quantification of subendocardial and subepicardial blood flow using 15O-labeled water and PET: Experimental validation. J Nucl Med 47:163-172
87. Rosen BD, Lima JA, Nasir K, Edvardsen T, Folsom AR, Lai S, Bluemke DA, Jerosch-Herold M (2006) Lower myocardial perfusion reserve is associated with decreased regional left ventricular function in asymptomatic participants of the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Circulation 114:289-297
88. Rossen JD, Winniford MD (1993) Effect of increases in heart rate and arterial pressure on coronary flow reserve in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol 21:343-348
89. Sambuceti G, Marzilli M, Fedele S, Marini C, L'Abbate A (2001) Paradoxical increase in microvascular resistance during tachycardia downstream from a severe stenosis in patients with coronary artery disease: Reversal by angioplasty. Circulation 103:2352-2360
90. Sambuceti G, Marzilli M, Mari A, Marini C, Schluter M, Testa R, Papini M, Marraccini P, Ciriello G, Marzullo P, L'Abbate A (2005) Coronary microcirculatory vasoconstriction is heterogeneously distributed in acutely ischemic myocardium. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 288:H2298-H2305
91. Schafers KP, Stegger L (2008) Combined imaging of molecular function and morphology with PET/CT and SPECT/CT: Image fusion and motion correction. Basic Res Cardiol 103:191-199
92. Schafers M (2008) The future of molecular imaging in the clinic needs a clear strategy and a multidisciplinary effort. Basic Res Cardiol 103:200-202
93. Scharf SM, Bromberger-Barnea B, Permutt S (1971) Distribution of coronary venous flow. J Appl Physiol 30:657-662
94. Schelbert HR, Phelps ME, Huang SC, MacDonald NS, Hansen H, Selin C, Kuhl DE (1981) N-13 ammonia as an indicator of myocardial blood flow. Circulation 63:1259-1272
95. Schindler TH, Zhang XL, Vincenti G, Mhiri L, Lerch R, Schelbert HR (2007) Role of PET in the evaluation and understanding of coronary physiology. J Nucl Cardiol 14:589-603
96. Schuurbiers JC, Slager CJ, Serruys PW (1994) Luminal volume reconstruction from angioscopic video images of casts from human coronary arteries. Am J Cardiol 74:764-768
97. Schwaiger M, Ziegler S, Nekolla SG (2005) PET/CT: Challenge for nuclear cardiology. J Nucl Med 46:1664-1678
98. Siebes M, Verhoeff BJ, Meuwissen M, de Winter RJ, Spaan JA, Piek JJ (2004) Single-wire pressure and flow velocity measurement to quantify coronary stenosis hemodynamics and effects of percutaneous interventions. Circulation 109:756-762
99. Skyba DM, Jayaweera AR, Goodman NC, Ismail S, Camarano G, Kaul S (1994) Quantification of myocardial perfusion with myocardial contrast echocardiography during left atrial injection of contrast. Implications for venous injection. Circulation 90:1513-1521
100. Spaan JA (1985) Coronary diastolic pressure-flow relation and zero flow pressure explained on the basis of intramyocardial compliance. Circ Res 56:293-309
101. Spaan JA, Piek JJ, Hoffman JI, Siebes M (2006) Physiological basis of clinically used coronary hemodynamic indices. Circulation 113:446-455
102. Struijker-Boudier HA, Rosei AE, Bruneval P, Camici PG, Christ F, Henrion D, Levy BI, Pries A, Vanoverschelde JL (2007) Evaluation of the microcirculation in hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J 28:2834-2840
103. Tong CY, Prato FS, Wisenberg G, Lee TY, Carroll E, Sandler D, Wills J (1993) Techniques for the measurement of the local myocardial extraction efficiency for inert diffusible contrast agents such as gadopentate dimeglumine. Magn Reson Med 30:332-336
104. Tong CY, Prato FS, Wisenberg G, Lee TY, Carroll E, Sandler D, Wills J, Drost D (1993) Measurement of the extraction efficiency and distribution volume for Gd-DTPA in normal and diseased canine myocardium. Magn Reson Med 30:337-346
105. Torres MA, Picano E, Parodi G, Sicari R, Veglia F, Giorgetti A, Marzullo P, Parodi O (1997) Flow-function relation in patients with chronic coronary artery disease and reduced regional function. A positron emission tomographic and two-dimensional echocardiographic study with coronary vasodilator stress. J Am Coll Cardiol 30:65-70
106. Toyota E, Koshida R, Hattan N, Chilian WM (2001) Regulation of the coronary vasomotor tone: What we know and where we need to go. J Nucl Cardiol 8:599-605
107. Uren NG, Crake T, Lefroy DC, de Silva R, Davies GJ, Maseri A (1994) Reduced coronary vasodilator function in infarcted and normal myocardium after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 331:222-227
108. Uren NG, Melin JA, De Bruyne B, Wijns W, Baudhuin T, Camici PG (1994) Relation between myocardial blood flow and the severity of coronary-artery stenosis. N Engl J Med 330:1782-1788
109. van den Wijngaard JP, Kolyva C, Siebes M, Dankelman J, van Gemert MJ, Piek JJ, Spaan JA (2008) Model prediction of subendocardial perfusion of the coronary circulation in the presence of an epicardial coronary artery stenosis. Med Biol Eng Comput 46:421-432
110. van Rossum AC, Visser FC, Hofman MB, Galjee MA, Westerhof N, Valk J (1992) Global left ventricular perfusion: Noninvasive measurement with cine MR imaging and phase velocity mapping of coronary venous outflow. Radiology 182:685-691
111. Vancraeynest D, Kefer J, Hanet C, Fillee C, Beauloye C, Pasquet A, Gerber BL, Philippe M, Vanoverschelde JL (2007) Release of cardiac bio-markers during high mechanical index contrast-enhanced echocardiography in humans. Eur Heart J 28:1236-1241
112. Verhoeff BJ, Siebes M, Meuwissen M, Atasever B, Voskuil M, de Winter RJ, Koch KT, Tijssen JG, Spaan JA, Piek JJ (2005) Influence of percutaneous coronary intervention on coronary microvascular resistance index. Circulation 111:76-82
113. Vogel R, Indermuhle A, Reinhardt J, Meier P, Siegrist PT, Namdar M, Kaufmann PA, Seiler C (2005) The quantification of absolute myocardial perfusion in humans by contrast echocardiography: Algorithm and validation. J Am Coll Cardiol 45:754-762
114. von Birgelen C, van der Lugt A, Nicosia A, Mintz GS, Gussenhoven EJ, de Vrey E, Mallus MT, Roelandt JR, Serruys PW, de Feyter PJ (1996) Computerized assessment of coronary lumen and atherosclerotic plaque dimensions in three-dimensional intravascular ultrasound correlated with histomorphometry. Am J Cardiol 78:1202-1209
115. Waters EA, Wickline SA (2008) Contrast agents for MRI. Basic Res Cardiol 103:114-121
116. Wei K, Jayaweera AR, Firoozan S, Linka A, Skyba DM, Kaul S (1998) Quantification of myocardial blood flow with ultrasound-induced destruction of microbubbles administered as a constant venous infusion. Circulation 97:473-483
117. Weisse AB, Regan TJ (1974) A comparison of thermodilution coronary sinus blood flows and krypton myocardial blood flows in the intact dog. Cardiovasc Res 8:526-533
118. Westerhof N, Boer C, Lamberts RR, Sipkema P (2006) Cross-talk between cardiac muscle and coronary vasculature. Physiol Rev 86:1263-1308
119. Wijns W, Vatner SF, Camici PG (1998) Hibernating myocardium. N Engl J Med 339:173-181
120. Zeiher AM, Drexler H, Wollschlager H, Just H (1991) Endothelial dysfunction of the coronary microvasculature is associated with coronary blood flow regulation in patients with early atherosclerosis. Circulation 84:1984-1992
121. Zierler K (2000) Indicator dilution methods for measuring blood flow, volume, and other properties of biological systems: A brief history and memoir. Ann Biomed Eng 28:836-848