Token reinforcement: A review and analysis

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior

Volumn 91, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 257-286

  Hackenberg, Timothy D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

Author keywords

Behavioral economics; Conditioned reinforcement; Cross species analysis; Symmetrical law of effect; Token reinforcement

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; DISCRIMINATION LEARNING; HUMAN; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PUNISHMENT; REINFORCEMENT;

ANIMALS; DISCRIMINATION LEARNING; HUMANS; PUNISHMENT; REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE; TOKEN ECONOMY;

EID: 69349105349     PISSN: 00225002     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2009.91-257     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Autor, S. M. (1969). The strength of conditioned reinforcers as a function of frequency and probability of reinforcement. In D. P. Hendry (Ed.), Conditioned reinforcement (pp. 127-162). Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.
2. Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. H. (1968). The token economy: A motivational system for therapy and rehabilitation. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
3. Battalio, R. C., Kagel, J. H., Winkler, R. C., Fisher, E. B., Jr., Bassman, R. L., & Krasner, L. (1974). An experimental investigation of consumer behavior in a controlled environment. Journal of Consumer Research, 1, 52-60.
4. Bickel, W. K., DeGrandpre, R. J., & Higgins, S. T. (1995). The behavioral economics of concurrent drug reinforcers: A review and reanalysis of drug self-administration research. Psychopharmacology, 118, 250-259.
5. Boakes, R. A., Poli, M., Lockwood, M. J., & Goodall, G. (1978). A study of misbehavior: Token reinforcement in the rat. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 29, 115-134.
6. Brethower, D. M., & Reynolds, G. S. (1962). A facilitative effect of punishment on unpunished behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 5, 191-199.
7. Brosnan, S. F., Jones, O. D., Lamberth, S. P., Mareno, C., Richardson, A. S., & Schapiro, S. J. (2007). Endowment effect in chimpanzees. Current Biology, 17, 1704-1707.
8. Bullock, C. E., & Hackenberg, T. D. (2006). Second-order schedules of token reinforcement with pigeons: Implications for unit price. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 85, 95-106.
9. Camerer, C. F. (2003). Behavioral game theory: Experiments in strategic interaction. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
10. Camerer, C. F., Loewenstein, G. F., & Prelec, D. (2005). Neuroeconomics: How neuroscience can inform economics. Journal of Economic Literature, 43, 9-64.
11. Camerer, C. F., Loewenstein, G., & Rabin, M. (Eds.). (2003). Advances in behavioral economics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
12. Chen, M. K., Lakshminarayanan, V., & Santos, L. R. (2006). How basic are behavioral biases? Evidence from Capuchin monkey trading behavior. Journal of Political Economy, 114, 517-537.
13. Cole, M. R. (1990). Operant hoarding: A new paradigm for the study of self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 53, 247-261.
14. Cowles, J. T. (1937). Food-tokens as incentives for learning by chimpanzees. Comparative Psychological Monographs, 12, 1-96.
15. Critchfield, T. S., Paletz, E. M., Macaleese, K. R., & Newland, M. C. (2003). Punishment in human choice: Direct or competitive suppression? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 80, 1-27.
16. Critchfield, T. S., & Rasmussen, E. R. (2007). It's aversive to have an incomplete science of behavior. Mexican Journal of Behavior Analysis, 33, 1-6.
17. Crosbie, J., Williams, A. M., Lattal, K. A., Anderson, M. M., & Brown, S. M. (1997). Schedule interactions involving punishment with pigeons and humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 68, 161-175.
18. DeGrandpre, R. J., Bickel, W. K., Hughes, J. R., Layng, M. P., & Badger, G. (1993). Unit price as a useful metric in analyzing effects of reinforcer magnitude. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 60, 641-666.
19. DeLeon, I. G., Iwata, B. A., Goh, H., & Worsdell, A. S. (1997). Emergence of reinforcer preference as a function of schedule requirements and stimulus similarity. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 439-449.
20. de Villiers, P. A. (1980). Toward a quantitative theory of punishment. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 33, 15-25.
21. Dewsbury, D. A. (2003). Conflicting approaches: Operant psychology arrives at a primate laboratory. The Behavior Analyst, 26, 253-265.
22. Dewsbury, D. A. (2006). Monkey Farm: A history of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology, Orange Park, Florida, 1930-1965. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press.
23. Fantino, E. (1977). Conditioned reinforcement: Choice and information. In: W. K. Honig, & J. E. R. Staddon (Eds.), Handbook of operant behavior (pp. 313-339). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
24. Farley, J. (1980). Reinforcement and punishment effects in concurrent schedules: A test of two models. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 33, 311-326.
25. Farley, J., & Fantino, E. (1978). The symmetrical law of effect and the matching relation in choice behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 29, 37-60.
26. Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
27. Fischhoff, B. (1995). Ranking risks. Risk: Health, Safety and Environment, 6, 189-200.
28. Fisher, E. B., Jr., Winkler, R. C., Krasner, L., Kagel, J., Battalio, R. C., & Basmann, R. L. (1978). Economic perspectives in behavior therapy: Complex interdependencies in token economies. Behavior Therapy, 9, 391-403.
29. Flora, S. R., & Pavlik, W. B. (1992). Human self-control and the density of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 57, 201-208.
30. Foster, T. A., & Hackenberg, T. D. (2004). Choice and unit price in a token reinforcement context. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 81, 5-25.
31. Foster, T. A., Hackenberg, T. D., & Vaidya, M. (2001). Second-order schedules of token reinforcement with pigeons: Effects of fixed- and variable-ratio exchange schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 76, 159-178.
32. Frederick, S., Loewenstein, G., & O'Donoghue, T. (2002). Time discounting and time preference: A critical review. Journal of Economic Literature, 40, 351-401.
33. Glynn, S. M. (1990). Token economy approaches for psychiatric patients: progress and pitfalls over 25 years. Behavior Modification, 14, 383-407.
34. Gollub, L. (1977). Conditioned reinforcement: Schedule effects. In: W. K. Honig, & J. E. R. Staddon (Eds.), Handbook of operant behavior (pp. 288-312). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
35. Green, L., & Rachlin, H. (1975). Economic and biological influences on a pigeon's key peck. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 23, 55-62.
36. Hackenberg, T. D. (2005). Of pigeons and people: Some observations on species differences in choice and selfcontrol. Brazilian Journal of Behavior Analysis, 1, 135-147.
37. Hackenberg, T. D., & Vaidya, M. (2001). Second-order schedules of token reinforcement with pigeons: Effects of fixed and variable-ratio exchange schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 76, 159-178.
38. Hackenberg, T. D., & Vaidya, M. (2003). Determinants of pigeons' choices in token-based self-control procedures. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 79, 207-218.
39. Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., Lindberg, J. S., & Conners, J. (2003). Response-restriction analysis: I. Assessment of activity preferences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 47-58.
40. Hanson, H. M., & Witoslawski, J. J. (1959). Interaction between the components of a chained schedule. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 2, 171-177.
41. Higgins, S. T., Heil, S. H., & Lussier, J. P. (2004). Clinical implications of reinforcement as a determinant of substance abuse disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 431-461.
42. Horney, J., & Fantino, E. (1984). Choice for conditioned reinforcers in the signaled absence of primary reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 41, 193-201.
43. Hursh, S. R. (1980). Economic concepts for the analysis of behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 34, 219-238.
44. Hursh, S. R. (1991). Behavioral economics of drug self-administration and drug abuse policy. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 56, 377-393.
45. Hursh, S. R., & Silberberg, A. (2008). Economic demand and essential value. Psychological Review, 115, 186-198.
46. Hyten, C., Madden, G. J., & Field, D. P. (1994). Exchange delays and impulsive choice in adult humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 62, 225-233.
47. Jackson, K., & Hackenberg, T. D. (1996). Token reinforcement, choice, and self-control in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 66, 29-49.
48. Jwaideh, A. R. (1973). Responding under chained and tandem fixed-ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 19, 259-267.
49. Kagel, J. H. (1972). Token economies and experimental economics. Journal of Political Economy, 80, 779-785.
50. Kagel, J. H., & Winkler, R. C. (1972). Behavioral economics: Areas of cooperative research between economics and applied behavioral analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 335-342.
51. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decisions under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.
52. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (Eds.). (2000). Choices, values, and frames. New York: Cambridge University Press.
53. Kazdin, A. E. (1977). The token economy: A review and evaluation. New York: Plenum Press.
54. Kazdin, A. E. (1978). History of behavior modification: Experimental foundations of contemporary research. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
55. Kazdin, A. E. (1982). The token economy: A decade later. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 431-445.
56. Kelleher, R. T. (1956). Intermittent conditioned reinforcement in chimpanzees. Science, 124, 679-680.
57. Kelleher, R. T. (1958). Fixed-ratio schedules of conditioned reinforcement with chimpanzees. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1, 281-289.
58. Kelleher, R. T. (1966a). Chaining and conditioned reinforcement. In: W. K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior: Areas of research and application (pp. 160-212). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
59. Kelleher, R. T. (1966b). Conditioned reinforcement in second-order schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 9, 475-485.
60. Kelleher, R. T., & Goldberg, S. R. (1977). Fixed-interval responding under second-order schedules of food presentation or cocaine injection. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 28, 221-231.
61. Kelleher, R. T., & Gollub, L. R. (1962). A review of positive conditioned reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 5, 543-597.
62. Killeen, P. (1974). Psychophysical distance functions for hooded rats. The Psychological Record, 24, 229-235.
63. Lea, S. E. G. (1978). The psychology and economics of demand. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 441-466.
64. Lieberman, D. A., Davidson, F. H., & Thomas, G. V. (1985). Marking in pigeons: The role of memory in delayed reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 11, 611-624.
65. Logue, A. W. (1988). Research on self-control: An integrating framework. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11, 665-709 (includes commentary).
66. Logue, A. W., King, G. R., Chavarro, A., & Volpe, A. S. (1990). Matching and maximizing in a self-control paradigm using human subjects. Learning and Motivation, 21, 340-368.
67. Logue, A. W., Pena-Correal, T. E., Rodriguez, M. L., & Kabela, E. (1986). Self-control in adult humans: Variation in positive reinforcer amount and delay. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 46, 159-173.
68. Lubinski, D., & Thompson, T. (1987). An animal model of the interpersonal communication of interoceptive (private) states. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 48, 1-15.
69. Madden, G. J., Bickel, W. K., & Jacobs, E. A. (2000). Three predictions of the economic concept of unit price in a choice context. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 73, 45-64.
70. Magoon, M. A., & Critchfield, T. S. (2008). Concurrent schedules of positive and negative reinforcement: Differential-impact and differential-outcomes hypotheses. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 90, 1-22.
71. Malagodi, E. F. (1967a). Acquisition of the token-reward habit in the rat. Psychological Reports, 20, 1335-1342.
72. Malagodi, E. F. (1967b). Fixed-ratio schedules of token reinforcement. Psychonomic Science, 8, 469-470.
73. Malagodi, E. F. (1967c). Variable-interval schedules of token reinforcement. Psychonomic Science, 8, 471-472.
74. Malagodi, E. F. (1967d). Second-order chained and tandem schedules of token-reinforcement in the rat. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Miami.
75. Malagodi, E. F., Webbe, F. M., & Waddell, T. R. (1975). Second-order schedules of token reinforcement: Effects of varying the schedule of food presentation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 24, 173-181.
76. Mazur, J. E. (1983). Steady-state performance on fixed-, mixed-, and random-ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 39, 293-307.
77. McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Separate reward systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science, 306, 503-507.
78. McFarland, J. M., & Lattal, K. A. (2001). Determinants of reinforcer accumulation during an operant task. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 76, 321-338.
79. Midgley, M., Lea, S. E. G., & Kirby, R. M. (1989). Algorithmic shaping and misbehavior in the acquisition of token deposit by rats. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 52, 27-40.
80. Munson, K. J., & Crosbie, J. (1998). Effects of response cost in computerized programmed instruction. Psychological Record, 48, 233-251.
81. Myers, W. A., & Trapold, M. A. (1966). Two failures to demonstrate superiority of a generalized secondary reinforcer. Psychonomic Science, 5, 321-322.
82. O'Donnell, J., Crosbie, J., Williams, D. C., & Saunders, K. J. (2000). Stimulus control and generalization of pointloss punishment with humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 73, 261-274.
83. Pietras, C. J., & Hackenberg, T. D. (2005). Response-cost punishment via token-loss with pigeons. Behavioural Processes, 69, 343-356.
84. Raiff, B. R., Bullock, C. E., & Hackenberg, T. D. (2008). Response-cost punishment with pigeons: Further evidence of response suppression via token loss. Learning & Behavior, 36, 29-41.
85. Rasmussen, E. B., & Newland, M. C. (2008). Asymmetry of reinforcement and punishment in human choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 89, 157-167.
86. Roane, H. S., Call, N. A., & Falcomata, T. S. (2005). A preliminary analysis of adaptive responding under open and closed economies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38, 335-348.
87. Roll, J. M., Reilly, M. P., & Johanson, C. (2000). The influence of exchange delays on cigarette versus money choice: A laboratory analog of voucher-based reinforcement therapy. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8, 366-370.
88. Schmandt-Besserant, D. (1992). Before writing: Volume 1: From counting to cuneiform. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
89. Silberberg, A., Roma, P. G., Huntsberry, M. E., Warren-Boulton, F. R., Sakagami, T., Ruggiero, A. M., et al. (2008). On loss aversion in capuchin monkeys. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 89, 145-155.
90. Silverman, K. (2004). Exploring the limits and utility of operant conditioning in the treatment of drug addiction. The Behavior Analyst, 27, 209-230.
91. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.
92. Sousa, C., & Matsuzawa, T. (2001). The use of tokens as rewards and tools by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Animal Cognition, 4, 213-221.
93. Thaler, R. H. (Ed). (1993). Advances in Behavioral Finance Russell Sage Foundation.
94. Tustin, R. D. (1994). Preference for reinforcers under varying schedule arrangements: A behavioral economic analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 597-606.
95. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1131.
96. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1992). Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 5, 297-323.
97. Waddell, T. R., Leander, J. D., Webbe, F. M., & Malagodi, E. F. (1972). Schedule interactions in second-order fixed-interval (fixed-ratio) schedules of token reinforcement. Learning and Motivation, 3, 91-100.
98. Webbe, F. M., & Malagodi, E. F. (1978). Second-order schedules of token reinforcement: Comparisons of performance under fixed-ratio and variable-ratio exchange schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 30, 219-224.
99. Weiner, H. (1962). Some effects of response cost upon human operant behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 5, 201-208.
100. Weiner, H. (1963). Some effects of response cost and aversive control of human operant behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 415-421.
101. Weiner, H. (1964). Response cost and fixed-ratio performance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 7, 79-81.
102. Williams, B. A. (1991). Marking and bridging versus conditioned reinforcement. Animal Learning & Behavior, 19, 264-269.
103. Williams, B. A. (1994a). Conditioned reinforcement: Experimental and theoretical issues. The Behavior Analyst, 17, 261-285.
104. Williams, B. A. (1994b). Conditioned reinforcement: Neglected or outmoded explanatory construct? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1, 457-475.
105. Williams, B. F., Williams, R. L., & McLaughlin, T. F. (1989). The use of token economies with individuals who have developmental disabilities. In: E. Cipani (Ed.), The treatment of severe behavior disorders (pp. 3-18). Washington, DC: AAMR Publications.
106. Winkler, R. C. (1970). Management of chronic psychiatric patients by a token reinforcement system. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 47-55.
107. Winkler, R. C. (1973). An experimental analysis of economic balance, savings, and wages in a token economy. Behavior Therapy, 4, 22-40.
108. Winkler, R. C. (1980). Behavioral economics, token economies, and applied behavior analysis. In: J. E. R. Staddon (Ed.), Limits to action (pp. 269-297).New York: Academic Press.
109. Wolfe, J. B. (1936). Effectiveness of token rewards for chimpanzees. Comparative PsychologicalMonographs, 12, 1-72.
110. Yankelevitz, R. L., Bullock, C. E., & Hackenberg, T. D. (2008). Reinforcer accumulation in a token-reinforcement context. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 90, 283-299.
111. Yerkes, R. M. (1943). Chimpanzees: A Laboratory colony. New Haven, CT: Yake University Press.