Along-strike differences in the Southern Alps of New Zealand: Consequences of inherited variation in rheology

Tectonics

Volumn 28, Issue 2, 2009, Pages

  Upton, Phaedra ^a,b,c   Koons, Peter O ^a   Craw, Dave ^b   Henderson, C Mark ^d   Enlow, Ray ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MAINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

^c GNS SCIENCE   (New Zealand)

^d VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF WELLINGTON   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUSTRALIAN PLATE; EQUATION; GOLD; OROGENY; PACIFIC PLATE; PLATE BOUNDARY; RHEOLOGY; THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODELING; THRUST;

AUSTRALASIA; NEW ZEALAND; SOUTH ISLAND; SOUTHERN ALPS;

EID: 69249096085     PISSN: 02787407     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2008TC002353     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Amos, C. B., D. W. Burbank, D. C. Nobes, and S. A. L. Read (2007), Geomorphic constraints on listric thrust faulting: Implications for active deformation in the Mackenzie Basin, South Island, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 112, B03S11, doi:10.1029/2006JB004291.
2. Anderson, R. E., and T. P. Bamhard (1986), Genetic relationship between faults and folds and determination of Laramide and neotectonic paleostress, western Colorado Plateau transition zone, Tectonics, 5, 335-357, doi:10.1029/TC005i002p00335.
3. Baldock, G., and T. Stern (2005), Width of mantle deformation across a continental transform: Evidence from upper mantle (Pn) seismic anisotropy measurements, Geology, 33, 741-744, doi:10.1130/G21605.1.
4. Barnes, P., R. Sutherland, and J. Delteil (2005), Strike-slip structure and sedimentary basins of the south-em Alpine Fault, Fiordland, New Zealand, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 117, 411-435, doi:10.1130/B25458.1.
5. Beaumont, C., P. Fullsack, and J. Hamilton (1992), Erosional control of active compressional orogens, in Thrust Tectonics, edited by K. R. McCIay, pp. 1 -18, Chapman and Hall, New York.
6. Beavan, J., et al. (1999), Crustal deformation during 1994-1998 due to oblique continental collision in the central Southern Alps, New Zealand, and implications for seismic potential of the Alpine fault, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 25,233-25,255, doi:10.1029/1999JB900198.
7. Beavan, J., S. Ellis, L. Wallace, and P. Denys (2007), Kinematic constraints from GPS on oblique convergence of the Pacific and Australian plates, central South Island, New Zealand, in A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand, Geophys. Monogr. Ser, vol.175, edited by D. Okaya, T. Stern, and F. Davey, pp. 75-94, AGU, Washington, D. C.
8. Blick, G. H., S. A. L. Read, and P. T. Hall (1989), Ostler Fault zone: Progress report on surveying results 1966-1985, levelling and tilt leveling, Rep. EDS 102, N. Z. Geol. Surv., Lower Hutt.
9. Bourguignon, S., T. A. Stem, and M. K. Savage (2007), Crust and mantle thickening beneath the southern portion of the Southern Alps, New Zealand, Geophys. J. Int., 168, 681-690, doi:10.1111/j. 1365-246X. 2006.03208.x.
10. Bradshaw, J. D. (1989), Cretaceous geotectonic patterns in the New Zealand region, Tectonics, 8, 803-820, doi:10.1029/TC008i004p00803.
11. Bump, A. P. (2004), Three-dimensional Laramide deformation of the Colorado Plateau: Competing stresses from the Sevier thrust belt and the flat Farallon slab, Tectonics, 23, TC1008, doi:10.1029/2002TC001424.
12. Bump, A. P., and G. H. Davis (2003), Late Cretaceous -early Tertiary deformation of the northern Colorado Plateau, Colorado and Utah, J. Struct. Geol., 25, 421-440, doi:10.1016/S0191-8141(02)00033-0.
13. Burov, E. B., and A. B. Watts (2006), The long-term strength of continental lithosphere: "jelly sandwich" or "crème brũlèe"?, GSA Today, 16, 4-10
14. Chen, W.-P., and P. Molnar (1983), Focal depths of intracontinental and intraplate earthquakes and their implications for the thermal and mechanical properties of the lithosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 4183-4214, doi:10.1029/JB088iB05p04183.
15. Coombs, D. S., C. A. Landis, R. J. Norris, J. M. Sinton, D. J. Boms, and D. Craw (1976), The Dun Mountain ophiolite belt, New Zealand, its tectonic setting, construction, and origin, with special reference to the southern portion, Am. J. Sci., 276, 561-603.
16. Cooper, A. F., B. A. Barreiro, D. L. Kitnbrough, and J. M. Mattinson (1987), Lamprophyre dike intrusion and the age of the Alpine Fault, New Zealand, Geology, 15, 941-944, doi:10.1130/0091-7613 (1987)15<941 :LDIATA>2.0.CO;2.
17. Cox, S. C., and R. H. Findlay (1995), The Main Divide Fault Zone and its role in formation of the Southern Alps, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 38, 489-499.
18. Cox, S. C., and R. S. Sutherland (2007), Regional geological framework of South Island, New Zealand, and its significance for understanding the active plate boundary, in A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics al South Island, New Zealand, Geophys. Monogr. Sen, vol.175, edited by D. Okaya, T. Stern, and F. Davey, pp. 19-46, AGU, Washington, D. C.
19. Craw, D. (1995), Reinterpretation of the erosion profile across the southern portion of the Southern Alps, Mt Aspiring area, Otago, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 38, 501-507.
20. Craw, D. (1998), Structural boundaries and biotite and garnet 'isograds' in the Otago and Alpine Schists, New Zealand, J. Metamorph. Geol., 16, 395-402, doi:10.1111/j.1525-1314.1998.00143.X.
21. Craw, D., P. O. Koons, T. Horton, and C. P. Chamberlain (2002), Tectonically driven fluid flow and gold mineralisation in active collisional orogenic belts: Comparison between New Zealand and western Himalaya, Tectonophysics, 348, 135-153, doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00253-0.
22. Craw, D., D. J. MacKenzie, I. K. Pitcaim, D. A. H. Teagle, and R. J. Norris (2007), Geochemical signatures of mesothermal Au-mineralised late-metamorphic deformation zones, Otago Schist, NZ, Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal., 7, 225-232, doi:10.1144/1467-7873/07-137.
23. Cundall, P., and M. Board (1988), A microcomputer program for modelling of large-strain plasticity problems, in Numerical Methods in Geomechanics: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics, Innsbruck, 11-15 April 1988, edited by C. Swoboda, pp. 101 -108, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
24. Davis, G. H. (1999), Structural Geology of the Colorado Plateau Region of Southern Utah With Special Emphasis on Deformation Bands, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 342, 157 pp.
25. Deckert, H., U. Ring, and N. Mortimer (2003), Tectonic significance of Cretaceous bivergent extensional shear zones in the Torlesse accertionary wedge, central Otago Schist, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 45, 537-547.
26. DeMets, C., R. G. Gordon, D. F. Argus, and S. Stein (1994), Effect of recent revisions to the geomagnetic reversal time scale on estimates of current plate motions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 2191 - 2194, doi:10.1029/94GL02118.
27. Eberhart-Phillips, D., and S. Bannister (2002), Three-dimensional crustal structure in the Southern Alps region of New Zealand from inversion of local earthquake and active source data, J. Geophys. Res., 107(B10), 2262, doi:10.1029/2001JB000567.
28. Eberhart-Phillips, D., and M. Reyners (1997), Continental subduction and three-dimensional crustal structure: The northern South Island, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 11,843-11,861, doi:10.1029/96JB03555.
29. Eberhart-Phillips, D., and M. Reyners (2001), A complex, young subduction zone imaged by three-dimensional seismic velocity, Fiordland, New Zealand, Geophys. J. Int., 146, 731-746, doi:10.1046/j.0956-540X.2001.01485.X.
30. Ellis, S., J. Beavan, and D. Eberhart-Phillips (2006), Bounds on the width of mantle lithosphere flow derived from surface geodetic measurements: Application to the central Southern Alps, New Zealand, Geophys. J. Int., 166,403-417, doi:10.llll/j.1365-246X.2006.02918.X
31. Enlow, R. L., and P. O. Koons (1998), Critical wedges in three dimensions: Analytical expressions from Mohr-Coulomb constrained perturbation analysis, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 4897-4914, doi:10.1029/97JB03209.
32. Forsyth, Ps. J. (2002), Geology of the Waitaki area, Geol. Map 19, scale, 1:250,000 1 sheet + 64 pp., N. Z. Inst. of Geol. and Nucl. Sci. Ltd., Lower Hutt.
33. Gair, H. S., and D. R. Gregg (1960), Relation of Kakanui Schist to Kaihikuan sedimentary rocks at Mt St Mary, North Otago, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 3, 618-625.
34. Gerbault, M., S. Henrys, and F. Davey (2003), Numerical models of lithospheric deformation forming the Southern Alps of New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 108(B7), 2341, doi:10.1029/2001JB001716.
35. Ghisetti, F. C., A. R. Gorman, and R. H. Sibson (2007), Surface break-through of a basement fault by repeated episodes of seismic slip: The Ostler Fault, South Island, New Zealand, Tectonics, 26, TC6004, doi:10.1029/2007TC002146.
36. Goldstrand, P. M. (1994), Tectonic development of Upper Cretaceous to Eocene strata of southwestern Utah, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull, 106,145-154,doi:10. 1130/0016-7606(1994)106<0145:TDOUCT>2.3CO;2
37. Gray, D. R., and D. A. Foster (2004), 40Ar/39Ar ther-mochronologic constraints on deformation, meta-morphism and cooling/exhumation of a Mesozoic accretionary wedge, Otago Schist, New Zealand, Tectonophysics, 385, 181-210, doi:10.1016/j.tecto. 2004.05.001.
38. Henderson, C. M. (2003), The velocity field of the South Island of New Zealand derived from GPS and terrestrial measurements, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
39. Jackson, J. A., R. J. Norris, and J. H. Youngson (1996), The structural evolution of active fault and fold systems in Central Otago, New Zealand: Evidence revealed by drainage patterns, J. Struct. Geol., 18, 217-234, doi:10.1016/S0191-8141(96)80046-0.
40. James, Z. (1998), Geology, Quaternary structure, fault rocks and fluid flow, Fox Peak Range, eastern Southern Alps, M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
41. Jamieson, R. A., C. Beaumont, S. Medvedev, and M. H. Nguyen (2004), Crustal channel flows: 2. Numerical models with implications for metamorphism in the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B06407, doi:10.1029/2003JB002811.
42. Jamison, W. R., and D. W. Stearns (1982), Tectonic deformation of Wingate Sandstone, Colorado National Monument, AAPG Bull., 66, 2584-2608.
43. Kelley, V. C., and N. J. Clinton (1960), Fracture systems and tectonic elements of the Colorado Plateau, Publ. Geol. 6, Univ. of N. M., Albuquerque.
44. Kohler, M. D., and D. Eberhart-Phillips (2003), Intermediate-depth earthquakes in a region of continental convergence: South Island, New Zealand, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 93, 85-93, doi:10.1785/0120020043.
45. Koons, P. O. (1990), Two-sided orogen: Collision and erosion from the sandbox to the Southern Alps, New Zealand, Geology:, 18, 679-682, doi:10.1130/0091 -7613(1990)018<0679:TSOCAE>2.3.CO;2.
46. Koons, P. O. (1994), Three-dimensional critical wedges: Tectonics and topography in oblique colli-sionalorogens, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 12301-12315, doi:10.1029/94JB00611.
47. Koons, P. O., D. Craw, S. C. Cox, P. Upton, A. S. Templeton, and C. P. Chamberlain (1998), Fluid flow during active oblique convergence: A Southem Alps model from mechanical and geochemical observations, Geology, 26, 159-162, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0159:FFDAOC>2.3.CO;2.
48. Koons, P. O., R. J. Norris, D. Craw, and A. F. Cooper (2003), Influence of exhumation on the structural evolution of transpressional plate boundaries: An example from the Southern Alps, New Zealand, Geology, 31, 3-6, doi:10.1130/0091 -7613(2003) 031<0003:IOEOTS>2.0.CO;2.
49. Laird, M. G. (1993), Cretaceous continental rifts; New Zealand region, in Sedimentary Basins of the World, vol.2, South Pacific Sedimentary Basins, edited by P. F. Balance, pp. 37-49, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
50. Landis, C. A., H. J. Campbell, J. G. Begg, D. C. Mildenhall, A. M. Paterson, and S. A. Trewick (2008), The Waipounamu erosion surface: Questioning the antiquity of the New Zealand land surface and terrestrial fauna and flora, Geol. Mag., 145, 173-197, doi:10.I017/S00I6756807004268.
51. Lawton, T. F. (1983), Late Cretaceous fluvial systems and the age of foreland uplifts in central Utah, in Rocky Mountain Foreland Basins and Uplifts, edited by J. D. Lowell and R. R. Gries, pp. 181 -199, Rocky Mtn. Assoc. of Geol., Denver, Colo.
52. LeMasurier, W. E., and C. A. Landis (1996), Mantle-plume activity recorded by low-relief erosion surfaces in West Antarctica and New Zealand, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 108, 1450-1466, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<1450: MPARBL>2.3.CO;2.
53. Little, T. A., and A. Jones (1998), Seven million years of strike-slip and off-fault deformation on the Awa-tere Fault, South Island, New Zealand, Tectonics, 17, 285-302, doi:10.1029/97TC03148.
54. Little, T. A., S. Cox, J. K. Vry, and G. Batt (2005), Variations in exhumation level and uplift rate along the oblique-slip Alpine fault, central Southern Alps, New Zealand, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 117, 707-723, doi:10.1130/B25500.1.
55. Liu, Z., and P. Bird (2006), Two-dimensional and three-dimensional finite element modeling of mantle processes beneath central South Island, New Zealand, Geophys. J. Int., 165, 1003-1028, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.02930.X.
56. MacKenzie, D. J., and D. Craw (2006), Paragenesis of hydrothermal minerals in the Rise and Shine Shear Zone, Otago Schist, paper presented at AusIMM Conference, Australasian Inst. of Min. and Metall., Waihi, N. Z.
57. MacKinnon, T. C. (1983), Origin of the Torlesse terrane and coeval rocks, South Island, New Zealand, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 94, 967-985, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1983)94<967:OOTTTA>2.0.CO;2.
58. Markley, M., and R. J. Norris (1999), Structure and neotectonics of the Blackstone Hill Antiform, central Otago, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 42,205-218.
59. Melhuish, A., W. S. Holbrook, F. Davey, D. Okaya, and T. A. Stern (2005), Crustal and upper mantle seismic structure of the Australian plate, South Island, New Zealand, Tectonophysics, 395, 113-135, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2004.09. 005.
60. Molnar, P., et al. (1999), Continuous deformation versus faulting through the continental lithosphere of New Zealand, Science, 286, 516-519, doi:10.1126/science.286.5439.516.
61. Moore, M., P. England, and B. Parsons (2002), Relation between surface velocity field and shear wave splitting in the South Island of New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 107(B9), 2198, doi:10.1029/2000JB000093.
62. Mortimer, N. (1993a), Jurassic tectonic history of the Otago Schist, New Zealand, Tectonics, 12, 237-244, doi:10.I029/92TC0I563.
63. Mortimer, N. (1993b), Geology of the Otago Schist and adjacent rocks, Geol. Map 7, scale 1:500,000, N. Z. Inst. Geol. Nucl. Sci. Ltd., Lower Hutt.
64. Mortimer, N. (2000), Metamorphic discontinuities in orogenic belts: Example of garnet-biotite-albite zone in the Otago Schist, New Zealand, Int. J. Earth Sci, 89, 295-306, doi:10.1007/s005310000086.
65. Norris, R. J., and A. F. Cooper (2001), Late Quaternary slip rates and slip partitioning on the Alpine Fault, New Zealand, J. Struct. Geol., 23, 507-520, doi:10.1016/S0191-8141(00)00122-X.
66. Norris, R. J., and D. Craw (1987), Aspiring terrane: An oceanic assemblage from New Zealand and its implications for terrane accretion in the southwest Pacific, Geodynamics, 19, 169-177.
67. Norris, R. J., P. O. Koons, and A. F. Cooper (1990), The oblique-convergent plate boundary in the South Island of New Zealand: Implications for ancient collision zones, J. Struct. Geol., 12, 715-725, doi:10.1016/019I-8141(90)90084-C.
68. Paterson, M. S., and F. C. Luan (1990), Quartzite rheol-ogy under geological conditions, in Deformation Mechanisms, Rheology and Tectonics, edited by R. J. Knipe and E. H. Rutter, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 54, pp. 299-307.
69. Pearson, C. J. (1990), Extent and tectonic significance of the central Otago shear strain anomaly, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 33, 295-301.
70. Pitcaim, I. K., D. H. Teagle, D. Craw, G. R. Olivo, R. Kerrich, and T. S. Brewer (2006), Sources of metals and fluids in orogenic gold deposits: Insights from the Otago and Alpine schists, New Zealand, Econ. Geol, 101, 1525-1546, doi:10.2113/gsecongeo. 101.8.1525.
71. Savage, M. K., A. Tommasi, S. Ellis, and J. Chery (2007), Modeling strain and anisotropy along the Alpine Fault, South Island, New Zealand, in A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol.175, edited by D. Okaya, T. Stern, and F. Davey, pp. 291-308, AGU, Washington, D. C.
72. Scherwath, M., T. Stern, F. Davey, D. Okaya, W. S. Holbrook, R. Davies, and S. Kleffmann (2003), Lithospheric structure across oblique continental collision in New Zealand from wide-angle P wave modeling, J. Geophys. Res., 108(B12), 2566, doi:10.1029/2002JB002286.
73. Sewell, R. J. (1988), Late Miocene volcanic stratigraphy of central Banks Peninsula, Canterbury, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 30, 41-64.
74. Shelton, G., and J. A. Tullis (1981), Experimental flow laws for crustal rocks, Eos Trans. AGU, 62, 396.
75. Sibson, R. H. (1982), Fault zone models, heat flow and the depth distribution of earthquakes in the continental crust of the United States, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 72, 151-163.
76. Simpson, G. D. H., A. F. Cooper, and R. J. Norris (1994), Late Quaternary evolution of the Alpine Fault at Paringa, South Westland, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 37, 49-58.
77. Stern, T. A., P. E. Wannamaker, D. Eberhart-Phillips, D. Okaya, J. F. Davey, and South Island Project Working Group (2001), Mountain building and active deformation studied in New Zealand, Eos Trans. AGU, 78(32), 329, 335-336.
78. Sutherland, R. (1999), Cenozoic bending of New Zealand basement terranes and Alpine Fault displacement: A brief review, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 42, 295-301.
79. Sutherland, R., P. King, and R. Wood (2001), Tectonic evolution of Cretaceous rift basins in south-eastern Australia and New Zealand: Implications for exploration risk assessment, in Proceedings of Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium, Spec. Publ. AIMM, edited by K. C. Hill and T. Bernecker, pp. 3-13, Pet. Explor. Soc. of Aust., Perth.
80. Templeton, A. S., D. Craw, P. O. Koons, and C. P. Chamberlain (1999), Near-surface expression of a young mesothermal gold mineralizing system, Sealy Range, Southern Alps, New Zealand, Miner. Deposita, 34, 163-172, doi:10.1007/s001260050193.
81. Tindall, S. E., and G. H. Davis (1999), Monocline development by oblique-slip fault propagation folding: The East Kaibab monocline, Colorado Plateau, Utah, J. Struct. Geol., 21, 1303-1320, doi:10.1016/S0191-8141(99)00089- 9.
82. Upton, P. (1998), Modelling localisation of deformation and fluid flow in a compressional orogen: Implications for the Southern Alps of New Zealand, Am. J. Sci, 289, 296-323.
83. Upton, P., and P. O. Koons (2007), Three-dimensional geodynamic framework for the central Southern Alps, New Zealand: Integrating geology, geophysics and mechanical observations, in A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol.175, edited by D. Okaya, T. Stern, and F. Davey, pp. 255-272, AGU, Washington, D. C.
84. Upton, P., D. Craw, T. G. Caldwell, P. O. Koons, Z. James, P. E. Wannamaker, G. J. Jiracek, and C. P. Chamberlain (2003a), Upper crustal fluid flow in the outboard region of the Southern Alps, New Zealand, Geofluids, 3, 1-12, doi:10.1046/j.l468-8123.2003.00046.X.
85. Upton, P., P. O. Koons, and D. Eberhart-Phillips (2003b), Extension and partitioning in an oblique subduction zone, New Zealand: Constraints from three-dimensional numerical modeling, Tectonics, 22(6), 1068, doi:10.1029/2002TC001431.
86. Upton, P., D. Craw, Z. James, and P. O. Koons (2004), Structure and late Cenozoic tectonics of the Southern Two Thumb Range, mid-Canterbury, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 47, 141-153.
87. Upton, P., M. Begbie, and D. Craw (2008), Numerical modelling of mechanical controls on coeval steep and shallow dipping auriferous quartz vein formation in a thrust zone, Macraes mine, New Zealand, Miner. Deposita, 43, 23-35, doi:10.1007/s00126-007-0148-0.
88. Van Avendonk, H. J. A., W. S. Holbrook, D. Okaya, J. K. Austin, F. Davey, and T. Stem (2004), Continental crust under compression: A seismic refraction study of South Island Geophysical Transect I, South Island, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B06302, doi:10.1029/2003JB002790.
89. Wandres, A. M., and J. D. Bradshaw (2005), New Zealand tectonostratigraphy and implications from conglomeratic rocks for the configuration of the SW Pacific margin of Gondwana, in Terrane Processes at the Margins of Gondwana, edited by A. P. M. Vaughan, P. T. Leat, and J. J. Pankhurst, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., vol.246, pp. 179-216.
90. Wannamaker, P. E., G. R. Jiracek, J. A. Stodt, T. G. Caldwell, V. M. Gonzalez, J. D. McKnight, and A. D. Porter (2002), Fluid generation and pathways beneath an active compressional orogen, the New Zealand Southern Alps, inferred from magnetotel-luric data, J. Geophys. Res., 107(B6), 2117, doi:10.1029/2001JB000186.
91. Wellman, H. W. (1979), An uplift map of the South Island of New Zealand, and a model for uplift in the Southern Alps, in Origin of the Southern Alps, edited by R. I. Walcott and M. M. Cresswcll, Bull. R. Soc. N. Z, vol.18, pp. 13-20.
92. Willett, S. C., C. Beaumont, and P. Fullsack (1993), Mechanical model for the tectonics of doubly vergent compressional orogens, Geologv, 21, 371-374, doi:10.1130/0091-76I3(1993)021<0371:MMFTTO> 2.3.CO;2.