Indications and timing for prostate biopsy, diagnosis of early stage prostate cancer and its definitive treatment: A clinical conundrum in the PSA era

Surgical Oncology

Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 192-199

  Punnen, Sanoj ^a   Nam, Robert K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Biopsy; Diagnosis; Gene fusion; Prostate cancer; Treatment

Indexed keywords

MOLECULAR MARKER; PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR ERG;

CANCER RISK; CANCER SCREENING; COLOR ULTRASOUND FLOWMETRY; DIGITAL RECTAL EXAMINATION; EARLY CANCER; FUSION GENE; HUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; PROSTATE BIOPSY; PROSTATE CANCER; PROSTATIC INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TMPRSS 2 ERG GENE; TRANSRECTAL ULTRASONOGRAPHY;

BIOPSY, NEEDLE; EARLY DETECTION OF CANCER; HUMANS; MALE; PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; PROSTATIC NEOPLASMS; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 68849096732     PISSN: 09607404     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.suronc.2009.02.006     Document Type: Review

References (73)

1. Catalona W.J., Smith D.S., Ratliff T.L., and Basler J.W. Detection of organ confined prostate cancer is increased through prostate specific antigen based screening. JAMA 270 8 (1994) 948-954
2. Nam R.K., Toi A., Klotz L.H., Trachtenburg J., Jewett M.A., Appu S., et al. Assessing individual risk for prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 25 24 (2007) 3582-3588
3. Thompson I.M., Ankerst D.P., Chi C., Goodman P.J., Tangen C.M., Lucia M.S., et al. Assessing prostate cancer risk: results from the prostate cancer prevention trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 98 8 (2006) 529-534
4. Stamey T.A., Caldwell M., McNeal J.E., Nolley R., Hemenez M., and Downs J. The prostate specific antigen era in the United States is over for prostate cancer: what happened in the last 20 years?. J Urol 172 4 Pt 1 (2004) 1297-1301
5. Thompson I.M., Goodman P.J., Tangen C.M., Lucia M.S., Miller G.M., Ford L.J., et al. The influence of finasteride on the development of prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 349 3 (2003) 215-224
6. Thompson I.M., Pauler D.K., Goodman P.J., Tangen C.M., Lucia M.S., Parnes H.L., et al. Prevalence of prostate cancer among men with a prostate-specific antigen level < or =4.0 ng per milliliter. N Engl J Med 350 22 (2004) 2239-2246
7. Thompson I.M., Ankerst D.P., Chi C., Goodman P.J., Crowley J.J., Parnes H.L., et al. Operating characteristics of prostate-specific antigen in men with an initial PSA level of 3.0 ng/ml or lower. JAMA 294 1 (2005) 66-70
8. Karakiewicz P.I., Benayoun S., Kattan M.W., Perrotte P., Valiquette L., Scardino P.T., et al. Development and validation of a nomogram predicting the outcome of prostate biopsy based on patient age, digital rectal examination and serum prostate specific antigen. J Urol 173 6 (2005) 1930-1934
9. Nam R.K., Toi A., Trachtenberg J., Klotz L.H., Jewett M.A., Emami M., et al. Making sense of PSA: improving its predictive value among patients undergoing prostate biopsy. J Urol 175 (2006) 489-494
10. Hodge K.K., McNeal J.E., and Terris M.K. Random systematic versus directed ultrasound guided transrectal core biopsies of the prostate. J Urol 142 (1989) 71-74
11. Chang J.J., Mun SK., Bhargava V., and Presti Jr. J.C. Prospective evaluation of lateral biopsies of the peripheral zone for prostate cancer detection. J Urol 160 (1998) 2111-2114
12. Uno H., Nakano M., Ehara H., and Deguchi T. Indications for extended 14-core transrectal ultrasound-guided prostate biopsy. Urology 71 1 (2008) 23-27
13. Eskicorapci S.Y., Guliyev F., Akdogan B., Dogan H.S., Ergen A., and Ozen H. Individualization of the biopsy protocol according to the prostate gland volume for prostate cancer detection. J Urol 173 5 (2005) 1536-1540
14. Eskicorapci S.Y., Baydar D.E., Akbal C., Sofikerim M., Gunay M., Ekiei S., et al. An extended 10-core transrectal ultrasonography guided prostate biopsy protocol improves the detection of prostate cancer. Eur Urol 45 4 (2004) 444-448
15. Pepe P., and Aragona F. Prostate needle biopsy: 12 vs. 18 cores - is it necessary?. Urol Int 74 1 (2005) 19-22
16. Pepe P., and Aragona F. Saturation prostate needle biopsy and prostate cancer detection at initial and repeat evaluation. Urology 70 6 (2007) 1131-1135
17. Ashley R.A., Inman B.A., Routh J.C., Mynderse L.A., Gettman M.T., and Blute M.L. Reassessing the diagnostic yield of saturation biopsy of the prostate. Eur Urol 53 5 (2008) 976-983
18. Uzzo R.G., Wei J.T., Waldbaum R.S., Perlmutter A.P., Byrne J.C., and Vaughan E.D. The influence of prostatic size on cancer detection. Urology 46 (1995) 831-836
19. Scattoni V., Roscigno M., Raber M., Deho F., Maga T., Zanoni M., et al. Initial extended transrectal prostate biopsy - are more prostate cancers detected with 18 cores than with 12 cores?. J Urol 179 4 (2008) 1327-1331
20. Djavan B. Prostate biopsies and the Vienna nomograms. Eur Urol 5 (2006) 500-510
21. Remzi M., Fong Y.K., Dobrovits M., Anagnostou T., Seitz C., Waldert M., et al. The Vienna nomogram: validation of a novel biopsy strategy defining the optimal number of cores based on patient age and total prostate volume. J Urol 174 4 (2005) 1256-1260
22. Oyen R.H., Van de Voorde W.M., Van Poppel H.P., Brys P.B., Ameye F.E., and Franssens Y.M. Benign hyperplastic nodules that originate in the peripheral zone of the prostate gland. Radiology 189 (1993) 707
23. Resnick M.I., Willard J.W., and Boyce W.H. Transrectal ultrasonography in the evaluation of patients with prostatic carcinoma. J Urol 124 4 (1980) 482-484
24. Gosselaar C., Roobd M.J., Roemeling S., Wolters T., van Leenders G.J., and Schroder F.H. The value of an additional hypoechoic lesion-directed biopsy core for detecting prostate cancer. BJU Int 101 6 (2008) 685-690
25. Toi A., Neill M.G., Lockwood G.A., Sweet J.M., Tammsalu L.A., and Fleshner N.E. The continuing importance of transrectal ultrasound identification of prostatic lesions. J Urol 177 2 (2007) 516-520
26. Djavan B., Waldert M., Zlotta A., Dobronski P., Seitz C., Remzi M., et al. Safety and morbidity of first and repeat transrectal ultrasound guided prostate needle biopsies: results of a prospective European prostate cancer detection study. J Urol 166 3 (2001) 856-860
27. Kakehi Y., and Naito S. Complication rates of ultrasound guided prostate biopsy: a nation wide survey in Japan. Int J Urol 15 4 (2008) 319-321
28. Chiang I.N., Chang S.J., Pu Y.S., Huang K.H., Yu H.J., and Huang C.Y. Major complications and associated risk factors of transrectal ultrasound guided prostate needle biopsy: a retrospective study of 1875 cases in Taiwan. J Formos Med Assoc 106 11 (2007) 929-934
29. Clements R., Aideyan O.U., and Griffiths G.J. Side effects and patient acceptability of transrectal biopsy of the prostate. Clin Radiol 47 (1993) 125-126
30. Kawakami S., Okuna T., and Yonese J. Optimal sampling sites for repeat prostate biopsy: a recursive partitioning analysis of three-dimensional 26-core systematic biopsy. Eur Urol 51 (2007) 675-683
31. Djavan B., Remzi M., Shulman C.C., Marberger M., and Zlotta A. Repeat prostate biopsy: who, how and when? A review. Eur Urol 42 (2002) 93-103
32. Fleshner N.E., O'Sullivan M., and Fair W.R. Prevalence and predictors of a positive repeat transrectal ultrasound guided needle biopsy of the prostate. J Urol 158 (1997) 505-509
33. Nam R.K., Toi A., Trachtenberg J., Jewett M.A., Klotz L., Fleshner N., et al. Variation in patterns of practice in diagnosing screen-detected prostate cancer. BJU Int 94 9 (2004) 1239-1244
34. Borboroglu P.G., Comer S.W., Riffenburgh R.H., and Amling C.L. Extensive repeat transrectal ultrasound guided prostate biopsy in patients with previous benign sextant biopsies. J Urol 163 (2000) 158-162
35. Walz J., Graesen M., and Chun F.K. High incidence of prostate cancer detected by saturation biopsy after previous negative biopsy series. Eur Urol 50 (2006) 498-505
36. Fleshner N., and Klotz L. Role of "saturation biopsy" in the detection of prostate cancer among difficult diagnostic cases. Urology 60 1 (2002) 93-97
37. Mazal P.R., Haitel A., Windischberger C., Djavan B., Sedivy R., Moser E., et al. Spatial distribution of prostate cancers undetected on initial needle biopsies. Eur Urol 39 (2001) 662-668
38. Epstein J.I., Walsh P.C., Sauvageot J., and Carter H.B. Use of sextant and transition zone biopsies for assessing extant of prostate cancer. J Urol 158 (1997) 1886-1890
39. Terris M.K., Pham T.Q., Issa M.M., and Kabalin J.N. Routine TZ and seminal vesicle biopsies in all patients undergoing transrectal ultrasound guided prostate biopsies are not indicated. J Urol 157 (1997) 204-206
40. Yanke B.V., Gonen M., Scardino P.T., and Kattan M.W. Validation of a nomogram for predicting positive repeat biopsy for prostate cancer. J Urol 173 2 (2005) 421-424
41. Djavan B., Zlotta A., Remzi M., Ghawidel K., Basharkhah A., Schulman C.C., et al. Optimal predictors of prostate cancer in repeat prostate biopsy: a prospective study in 1051 men. J Urol 163 (2000) 1144-1148
42. Djavan B., Ravery V., Zlotta A., Dobronski P., Dobrovits M., and Fakhari M. Prospective evaluation of prostate cancer detected on biopsies 1, 2, 3 and 4: when should we stop?. J Urol 166 (2001) 1679-1683
43. McNeal J.E., and Bostwick D.G. Intraductal dysplasia: a premalignant lesion of the prostate. Hum Pathol 17 1 (1986) 64-71
44. Ji E. How should atypical prostate needle biopsies be reported? Controversies regarding the term "ASAP". Hum Pathol 30 12 (1999) 1401-1402
45. Moore C.K., Karikehalli S., Nazeer T., Fisher H.A., Kaufman Jr. R.P., and Mian B.M. Prognostic significance of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and atypical small acinar proliferation in the contemporary era. J Urol 173 1 (2005) 70-72
46. Epstein J.L., and Herawi M. Prostate needle biopsies containing prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia or atypical foci suspicious for carcinoma: implications for patient care. J Urol 175 3 (2006) 820-834
47. Schlesinger C., Bostwick D.G., and Iczkowski K.A. High grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and atypical small acinar proliferation: predictive value for cancer in current practice. Urology 66 5 (2005) 1043-1047
48. Mancuso P.A., Chabert C., Chin P., Kovac P., Skyring T., Watt W.H., et al. Prostate cancer detection in men with an initial diagnosis of atypical small acinar proliferation. BJU Int 99 1 (2007) 49-52
49. Amin M.M., Jeyaganth S., Fahmy N., Begin L., Aronson S., Jacobson S., et al. Subsequent prostate cancer detection in patients with prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia or atypical small acinar proliferation. Can Urol Assoc J 1 3 (2007) 245-249
50. Gallo F., Chiono L., Gastaldi E., Venturino E., and Giberti C. Prognostic significance of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN): risk of prostatic cancer on repeat biopsies. Urology (2008)
51. Netto G.J., and Epstein J.I. Widespread high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia on prostatic needle biopsy: a significant likelihood of subsequently diagnosed adenocarcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol 30 9 (2006) 1184-1188
52. Schoenfield L., Jones J.S., Zippe C.D., Reuther A.M., Klein E., Zhou M., et al. The incidence of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and atypical glands suspicious for carcinoma on first time saturation needle biopsy, and the subsequent risk of cancer. BJU Int 99 4 (2007) 770-774
53. Akhavan A., Keith J.D., Bastacky S.I., Cai C., Wang Y., and Nelson J.B. The proportion of cores with high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia on extended pattern needle biopsy is significantly associated with prostate cancer on site directed biopsy. BJU Int 99 4 (2007) 765-769
54. Herawi M., Kehane H., Cavallo C., and Epstein J.L. Risk of prostate cancer on first re-biopsy within 1 year following a diagnosis of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia is related to the number of cores sampled. J Urol 175 1 (2006) 121-124
55. Loch T. Urologic imaging for localized prostate cancer in 2007. World J Urol 25 2 (2007) 121-129
56. Amiel G.E., and Slawin K.M. Newer modalities of ultrasound imaging and treatment of the prostate. Urol Clin North Am 33 (2006) 329-337
57. Scattoni V., Zlotta A., Montironi R., Schulman C., Rigatti P., and Montorsi F. Extended and saturation prostatic biopsy in the diagnosis and characterisation of prostate cancer: A critical analysis of the literature. Eur Urol 52 (2007) 1309-1322
58. Remzi M., Dobrovits M., and Reissigi A. Can power Doppler enhanced transrectal ultrasound guided biopsy improve prostate cancer detection on first and repeat prostate biopsy. Eur Urol 46 (2004) 451-456
59. Halpern E.J., Ramey J.R., Strup S.E., Frauscher F., McMue P., and Gomella L.G. Detection of prostate carcinoma with contrast-enhanced sonography using intermittent harmonic imaging. Cancer 104 (2005) 2373-2383
60. Pallwein L., Mitterberger M., Gradl J., Aigner F., Horninger W., Strasser H., et al. Value of contrast-enhanced ultrasound and elastography in imaging of prostate cancer. Curr Opin Urol 17 1 (2007) 39-47
61. Konig K., Scheipers U., Pesavento A., Lorenz A., Ermert H., and Senge T. Initial experience with real time elastography guided biopsies of the prostate. J Urol 174 (2005) 115-117
62. Kirkham A.P.S., Emberton M., and Allen C. How good is MRI at detecting and characterising cancer within the prostate?. Eur Urol 50 (2006) 1163-1175
63. Pondman K.M., Fütterer J.J., ten Haken B., Schultze Kool L.J., Witjes J.A., Hambrock T., et al. MR-guided biopsy of the prostate: an overview of techniques and a systematic review. Eur Urol 54 3 (2008) 517-527
64. Nam R.K., Jewett M.A.S., and Krahn M.D. Prostate cancer: 2. Natural history. Can Med Assoc J 159 6 (1998) 685-691
65. Catalona W.J., and Smith D.S. Cancer recurrence and survival rates after anatomic radical retropubic prostatectomy for prostate cancer: intermediate-term results. J Urol 160 (1998) 2428-2434
66. Tomlins S.A., Rhodes D.R., Perner S., Dhanasekaran S.M., Mehra R., Sun X.W., et al. Recurrent fusion of TMPRSS2 and ETS transcription factor genes in prostate cancer. Science 310 5748 (2005) 644-648
67. Seth A., and Watson D.K. ETS transcription factors and their emerging roles in human cancer. Eur J Cancer 41 16 (2005) 2462-2478
68. Afar D.E., Vivanco I., Hubert R.S., Kuo J., Chen E., Saffron D.C., et al. Catalytic cleavage of the androgen-regulated TMPRSS2 protease results in its secretion by prostate and prostate cancer epithelia. Cancer Res 61 4 (2001) 1686-1692
69. Lin B., Ferguson C., White J.T., Wang S., Vessella R., True L.D., et al. Prostate-localized and androgen-regulated expression of the membrane-bound serine protease TMPRSS2. Cancer Res 59 17 (1999) 4180-4184
70. Narod S.A., Seth A., and Nam R. Fusion in the ETS gene family and prostate cancer. Br J Cancer 99 6 (2008) 847-851
71. Attard G., Clark J., Ambroisine L., Fisher G., Kovacs G., Flohr P., Transatlantic Prostate Group, et al. Duplication of the fusion of TMPRSS2 to ERG sequences identifies fatal human prostate cancer. Oncogene (2007)
72. Demichelis F., Fall K., Perner S., Andrén O., Schmidt F., Setlur S.R., et al. TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusion associated with lethal prostate cancer in a watchful waiting cohort. Oncogene 26 31 (2007) 4596-4599
73. Nam R.K., Sugar L., Yang W., Srivastava S., Klotz L.H., Yang L.Y., et al. Expression of the TMPRSS2:ERG fusion gene predicts cancer recurrence after surgery for localized prostate cancer. Br J Cancer 97 12 (2007) 1690-1695