Does diesel exhaust cause human lung cancer?

Risk Analysis

Volumn 17, Issue 6, 1997, Pages 807-829

  Cox Jr , Louis Anthony ^a  

^a Cox Associates ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

AI and statistics; Causation; Classification trees; Diesel exhaust; Epidemiology; Lung cancer; Scientific inference

Indexed keywords

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE; EPIDEMIOLOGY; EXHAUST GASES; ONCOLOGY; RISK ASSESSMENT; STATISTICAL METHODS; TREES (MATHEMATICS);

DIESEL EXHAUST; SCIENTIFIC INFERENCE;

HEALTH RISKS;

CARCINOGEN;

ALGORITHM; ARTICLE; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; EXHAUST GAS; HUMAN; LUNG CANCER; META ANALYSIS; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; RISK ASSESSMENT;

ANIMALS; ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE; CARCINOGENS; CAUSALITY; CONFOUNDING FACTORS (EPIDEMIOLOGY); DECISION SUPPORT TECHNIQUES; DECISION TREES; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS; EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES; HUMANS; LINEAR MODELS; LUNG NEOPLASMS; MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; RATS; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; RISK; RISK ASSESSMENT; STATISTICS; VEHICLE EMISSIONS;

EID: 6844236379     PISSN: 02724332     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1997.tb01286.x     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. Ahlberg, J., A. Ahlbom, H. Lipping, S. Norell, L. Osterblom, 1981. Cancer among professional drivers: A problem-oriented register-based study. Lakartidningen 78, 1545-1546.
2. Ahn, H., J. J. Chen, 1997. Tree-structured logistic model for over-dispersed binomial data with application to modeling developmental effects. Biometrics 53, 435-455.
3. Bacchetti, P., M. R. Segal, 1995. Survival trees with time-dependent covariates: Application to estimating changes in the incubation period of AIDS. Lifetime Data Anal. 1(1), 35-48.
4. Becker, N. G., Uses of the EM algorithm in the analysis of data on HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases. Stat. Meth. Med. Res. 6(1), 24-37.
5. Bender, A. P., D. L. Parker, R. A. Johnson, W. K. Scharber, A. N. Williams, M. C. Marbury, J. S. Mandel, 1989. Minnesota highway maintenance worker study: Cancer mortality. Am. J. Indust. Med. 15, 545-556.
6. Berger, J. O., L. R. Pericchi, 1996. The intrinsic Bayes factor for model selection and prediction. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 91(433), 109-122.
7. Biggs, D., B. de Ville, E. Suen, 1991. A method of choosing multiway partitions for classification and decision trees. J. Appl. Stat. 18(1), 49-62.
8. Blalock, H. M., 1961. Causal Inferences in Nonexperimental Research (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill).
9. Boudjellaba, H., J.-M. Dufour, R. Roy, 1992. Testing causality between two vectors in multivariate autoregressive moving average models. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 87, 1082-1090.
10. Breiman, L., J. Friedman, R. Olshen, C. Stone, 1984. Classification and Regression Trees (Wadsworth Publishing).
11. Breslow, N. E., 1996. Statistics in epidemiology: The case control study. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 91(433), 14-28.
12. Buckland, S. T., K. P. Burnham, and N. H. Augustin, 1997. Model selection: An integral part of inference. Biometrics 53, 603-618.
13. Burns, P. B., G. M. Swanson, 1991. The Occupational Cancer Incidence Surveillance Study (OCISS): Risks of lung cancer by usual occupational and industry in the Detroit metropolitan area. Am. J. Indust. Med. 19, 655-671.
14. Buzas, J. S., L. A. Stefanski. Instrumental variable estimation in generalized linear measurement error models. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 91(435), 999-1006.
15. California Environmental Protection Agency, 1994. Draft Health Risk Assessment for Diesel Exhaust, Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment.
16. Campbell, D. T., J. C. Stanley, 1963. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research (Rand McNally, Chicago).
17. Chames, J. M., P. P. Shenoy, 1997. A Forward Monte-Carlo Method for Solving Influence Diagrams Using Local Computation. Paper presented at the Sixth International Workshop on Artificial Intelligence and Statistics, January 4-7, Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
18. Carroll, R. J., 1997. Surprising effects of measurement error on an aggregate data estimator Biometrika 84(1), 231-134.
19. Cheeseman, P., R. W. Olford (eds.), 1994. Selecting Models from Data, Lecture Notes in Statistics, Vol. 89, (Springer-Verlag, New York), pp. 339-350.
20. Cohen, A. J., M W. P. Higgins, 1995. Health effects of diesel exhaust: Epidemiology. In Diesel Exhaust: A Critical Analysis of Emissions, Exposure, and Health Effects. A Special report of the Institute's Working Group, Health effects Institute (HEI), Cambridge, MA.
21. Cohen, P. R., D. E. Gregory, L. Ballesteros, R. S-Amant. Two algorithms for inducing structural equation models from data, in D. Fisher and H.-J. Lenz (eds), Learning from Data: Artificial Intelligence and Statistics V (Springer-Verlag, New York), Chap. 1.
22. Cox, L. A., Jr., 1996. Using causal knowledge to learn more useful decision rules from data, in D. Fisher and H.-J. Lenz (eds.), Learning from Data: Artificial Intelligence and Statistics V (Springer-Verlag, New York), Chap. 2.
23. Cox, L. A., Jr., 1989. Managing uncertain risks through 'intelligent' classification: A combined artificial intelligence/decision analysis approach, in J. J. Bonin and D. E. Stevenson (eds.), Risk Assessment in Setting National Priorities (Plenum Press, New York), pp. 473-482.
24. Crump, K. S., T. Lambert, C. Chen, 1991. Assessment of Risk from Exposure to Diesel Engine Emissions. Report prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Health Assessment, by Clement International Corporation, Ruston, Louisiana (Work Assignment No. 182, July).
25. Crump, K. S., 1995. Letter to EPA Project Manager, May 12, 1995.
26. Damber, L. A., L. G. Larsson, 1985. Professional driving, smoking, and lung cancer: A case referent study. Brit. J. Indust. Med. 42, 246-252.
27. Dawson, S. V., 1995. Letter to EPA Project Manager, April 27, 1995.
28. Driscoll, K. E., J. M. Carter. B. W. Howard, D. G. Hassenbein, W. Pepelko, R. B. Baggs, G Oberdorster, 1996. Pulmonary inflammatory, chemokine, and mutagenic responses in rats after subchronic inhalation of carbon black. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 136, 372-380.
29. Edling, C., C. Anjou, O Axelson, H. Kling, 1987. Mortality among personnel exposed to diesel exhaust. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 59, 559-565.
30. Efron, B., 1997. The length heuristic for simultaneous hypothesis tests. Biometrika 84(1), 143-157.
31. Ericsson, N. R., J. S. Irons (eds.), 1994. Testing Exogeneity (Oxford University Press, Oxford, England).
32. Elder, J., D. Pregibon, 1996. A statistical perspective on knowledge discovery in databases, in U. M. Fayyad, G. Piatetsky-Shapiro, P. Smyth, and R. Uthurusamy (eds.), Advances in Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (AAAI Press/The MIT Press, 1996), Chap. 4.
33. Emmelin, A., L. Nystrom, S. Wall, 1993. Diesel exhaust exposure and smoking: A case-referent study of lung cancer among Swedish dock workers Epidemiology 4, 237-244.
34. Fayyad, G. Piatetsky-Shapiro, P. Smyth, R. Uthurusamy (eds.), 1996. Advances in Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (AAAI Press/The MIT Press).
35. Fisher, D., H.-J. Lenz (eds.), 1996. Learning from Data: Artificial Intelligence and Statistics V (Springer-Verlag, New York).
36. Garshick, E., M. B. Schenker, A. Munoz, M. Segal, T. J. Smith, S. R. Woskie, S. K. Hammond, F. E. Speizer, 1987. A case-control study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust exposure in railroad workers. Am Rev. Resp. Dis. 135, 1242-1248.
37. Garshick, E., M. B. Schenker, A. Munoz, M. Segal, T. J. Smith, S. R. Woskie, S. K. Hammond, F. E. Speizer, 1988. A retrospective cohort study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust exposure in railroad workers. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 137, 820-825.
38. Garshick, E., 1991. Letter to Dr. Chao Chen (U.S. EPA), August 15, 1991.
39. Gasser, T., A. Kneip, 1995. Searching for structure in curve samples. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 90(432), 1179-1187.
40. Geweke, J., 1984. Inference and causality, in Z. Griliches and M. D. Intriligator (eds.), Handbook of Econometrics, Vol. 2 (North-Holland, Amsterdam), Chap. 19.
41. Gonzalez-Mantega, W., R. Cao, J. S. Marron, 1996. Bootstrap selection of the smoothing parameter in nonparametric hazard rate estimation. J. Am. Stat Assoc. 91(435), 1130-1140.
42. Goutis, C., G. Casella, M. T. Wells, 1996. Assessing evidence in multiple hypotheses. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 91(435), 1268-1277.
43. Gradient Corporation, 1994. Critique of the California Environmental Protection Agency, Health Risk Assessment for Diesel Exhaust, Cambridge, MA, September 2, 1994.
44. Granger, C. W. J., 1980. Tests for causation - a personal viewpoint. J. Econ. Dynam. Cont. 2, 329-352.
45. Granger, C. W. J., and P. Newbold, 1974. Spurious regression in econometrics. J Econ 2(2), 111-120.
46. Gurland, J., J. Sethuraman, 1995. How pooling failure data may reverse increasing failure rates. J. Am Stat. Assoc. 90(432), 1416-1423.
47. Gustafsson, L., S. Wall, L. G. Larsson, B. Skog, 1986. Mortality and cancer incidence among Swedish dock workers: A retrospective cohort study. Scand J. Work Environ Health 12, 22-26.
48. Gustavsson, P., N. Plato, E. B. Lidstrom, C Hogsted, 1990. Lung cancer and exposure to diesel exhaust among bus garage workers. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 16, 348-354.
49. Hall, P., B. A. Turlach, 1997. Interpolation methods for adapting to sparse designs in nonparametric regression. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 92(438), 466-472.
50. Hayes, R. B., T. T. Silverman, D. T. Vineis, P. Blot, et al., 1989. Lung cancer in motor exhaust-related occupations. Am. J. Indust. Med. 16, 685-695.
51. Heinrich, U., R. Fuhst, et al., 1995. Chronic inhalation exposure of Wistar rats and two different strains of mice to diesel engine exhaust, carbon black, and titanium dioxide. Inhal. Toxicol. 7, 533-556.
52. Heise, D. R., 1975. Causal Analysis (Wiley, New York).
53. Henderson, R. F., J. A. Pickrell, R. K. Jones, J. D. Sun, J. M. Benson, J. L. Mauderly, R. O. McClellan, 1988. Response of rodents to inhaled diluted diesel exhaust: Biochemical and cytological changes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and in lung tissue. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 11, 546-567.
54. Hill, P., B. A. Turlach, 1997. Interpolation methods for adapting to sparse design in nonparametric regression. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 91(433), 109-122.
55. Hjorth, J. S. Urban, 1994. Computer Intensive Statistical Methods: Validation, Model Selection, and Bootstrap (Chapman & Hall).
56. Hosoya, Y., 1997. Causal analysis and statistical inference on possibly non-stationary time series, in D. M. Kreps and K. F. Wallis (eds.), Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Theory and Applications, Vol. III (Cambridge University Press), Chap. 1.
57. Jensen, F. V., 1996. An Introduction to Bayesian Networks (Springer-Verlag, New York).
58. Jenzarli, A., 1996. Solving influence diagrams using Gibbs sampling, in D. Fisher and H.-J. Lenz (eds.), Learning from Data: Artificial Intelligence and Statistics V (Springer-Verlag, New York), Chap. 6.
59. Judge, G. C., W. E. Griffiths, R. C. Hill, H. Lutkepohl, T.-C. Lee, 1985. The Theory and Practice of Econometrics, 2nd Ed. (Wiley, New York).
60. Kalbfleisch, J. D., R. L. Prentice, 1980. The Statistical Analysis of Failure Time Data (Wiley, New York).
61. Kenny, D. A., 1979. Correlation and Causality (Wiley, New York).
62. Lancaster, T. 1990. The Econometric Analysis of Transition Data (Cambridge University Press, New York).
63. Lee, C. C., 1996. On estimation for monotone dose-response curves. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 91(435), 1110-1119.
64. Lin, D. Y., 1997. Non-parametric inference for cumulative incidence functions in competing risks studies. Stat. Med. 16, 901-910.
65. Magder, L. S., S. L. Zeiger. A smooth nonparametric estimate of a mixing distribution using mixtures of Gaussians. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 91(435), 1141-1151.
66. Mauderly, J. L., Banas, D. A., Griffith, W. C., Hahn, F. F., Henderson, R. F., McClellan, R. O., 1996. Diesel exhaust is not a pulmonary carcinogen in CD-1 mice exposed under conditions carcinogenic to F344 rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 30(2), 233-242.
67. Mauderly, J. L., R. K. Jones, W. C. Griffith, R. F. Henderson, R. O. McClellan, 1987. Diesel exhaust is a pulmonary carcinogen in rats exposed chronically by inhalation. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 9, 208-221.
68. McClellan, R. O., 1996. Lung cancer in rats from prolonged exposure to high concentrations of carbonaceous particles: Implications for human risk assessment. Inhal. Toxicol. 8(Suppl.), 193-226.
69. McCullagh, P., J. A. Neider, 1983. Generalized Linear Models (Chapman and Hall, New York).
70. Michie, D., D. J. Spiegelhalter, C. C. Taylor (eds.), 1994. Machine Learning, Neural and Statistical Classification (Ellis Horwood Series in Artificial Intelligence, Ellis Horwood, New York).
71. Milne, K. L., D. P. Sandler, R. B. Everson, S. M. Brown, 1983. Lung cancer and occupation in Alameda county: A death certificate case-control study. Am. J. Indust. Med. 4, 565-575.
72. Muscat, J. E., 1996 Carcinogenic effects of diesel emissions and lung cancer: The epidemiologic evidence is not causal. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 49(8), 891-892.
73. Muscat, J. E., E. L. Wynder, 1995. Diesel engine exhaust and lung cancer: An unproven association. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(9), 812-818.
74. Nakarmura, T., 1992. Proportional hazards model with covariates subject to measurement error. Biometrics 48, 829-638.
75. Nelson, C. R., G. W. Schwert, 1982. Tests for predictive relationships between time series variables J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 77, 11-18.
76. Nikula, K. J., Snipes, M B., Barr, E. B., Griffith, W. C., Henderson, R. F., Mauderly, J. L., 1996. Comparative pulmonary toxicities and carcinogenicities of chronically inhaled diesel exhaust and carbon black in F344 rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 25(1), 80-94.
77. Pearl, J., 1996. A causal calculus for statistical research, in D. Fisher and H.-J. Lenz (eds.), Learning from Data: Artificial Intelligence and Statistics V (Springer-Verlag, New York), Chap. 3.
78. Raferty, A. E., D. Madigan, J. A. Hoeting, 1997. Baysian model averaging for linear regression models. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 92(437), 179-191.
79. Saari, D. G., 1987. The sources of some paradoxes from social choice theory and probability. J. Econ. Theory 41, 1-22.
80. Shafer, G., 1996. The Art of Causal Conjecture (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA).
81. Shao, J., 1996. Bootstrap model selection. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 92(438), 466-472.
82. Siegel, S., 1956. Nonparametric Statistics (McGraw-Hill, New York).
83. Sims, C. A., 1990. Multivariate time series models, in J. Eatwell, M. Milgate, and P. Newman (eds.), The New Palgrave Time Series and Statistics (W. W. Norton and Company, New York).
84. Simon, H. A., 1977. Causes and possible worlds, in H. A. Simon (ed.), Models of Discovery (D. Reidel, Dordrecht), Sect. 2.
85. Steenland, N. K., D. T. Silverman, R. W. Hornung, 1990. Case-control study of lung cancer and truck driving in the Teamster's Union. Am. J. Public Health 80(6), 670-674.
86. Stefanski, L. A., J. R. Cook, 1995. Simulation-extrapolation: The measurement error jackknife. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 90(432), 1247-1256.
87. Stober, W., J. L. Mauderly, 1994. Model-inferred hypothesis of a critical dose for overload tumor induction by diesel soot and carbon black. Inhal. Toxicol. 6, 427-457.
88. Swanson, N. R., C. W. J. Granger, 1997. Impulse response functions based on a causal approach in residual orthogonalization in vector autoregressions. J Am. Stat. Assoc. 92(437), 357-367.
89. Valberg, P. A., A. Y. Watson, 1996. Analysis of diesel-exhaust unitrisk estimates derived from animal bioassays. Reg. Toxicol. Pharmacol 24, 30-44.
90. Waller, R. E., 1981. Trends in lung cancer in London in relation to exposure to diesel fumes. Environ Int. 5, 479-483.
91. Westfall, P., 1997. Multiple testing of general contrasts using logical constraints and correlations. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 92(437), 299-306.
92. Williams, R. R., N. L. Stegens, J. R. Goldsmith, 1977. Associations of cancer site and type with occupation and industry from the Third National Cancer Survey Interview. J Nat. Cancer Inst. 59, 1147-1185.
93. Wolff, R. K., R. F. Henderson, M. B. Snipes, W. C. Griffith, Jr., J. L. Mauderly, R. G. Cuddihy, R. O. McClellan, 1987. Alterations in particle accumulation and clearance in lungs of rats chronically exposed to diesel exhaust. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 9, 154-166.
94. Wolff, R. K., W. C. Griffith, Jr., J. L., R. G. Cuddihy, M. B. Snipes, R. F. Henderson, J. L. Mauderly, R. O. McClellan, 1989. Modeling accumulations of particles in lung during chronic inhalation exposures that lead to impaired clearance. Health Phys. 57(Suppl. 1), 61-68.
95. Wong, O., R. W. Morgan, L. Kheifets, S. R. Larson, M. D. Whorton, 1985. Mortality among members of a heavy construction equipment operators union with potential exposure to diesel exhaust emissions. Brit. J. Indust. Med. 42, 435-448.
96. Yao, Q., D. Tritchler, 1996. Likelihood-based causal inference, in D. Fisher and H.-J. Lenz (eds.), Learning from Data: Artificial Intelligence and Statistics V (Springer-Verlag, New York), Chap. 4.