Lung cancer in rats from prolonged exposure to high concentrations of carbonaceous particles: Implications for human risk assessment

Inhalation Toxicology

Volumn 8, Issue SUPPL., 1996, Pages 193-226

  McClellan, Roger O ^a  

^a CIIT CENTERS FOR HEALTH RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0012154465     PISSN: 08958378     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. Albert, R. E. 1994. Carcinogen risk assessment in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 24:75-85.
2. Ames, B. N., and Gold, L. A. 1990. Chemical carcinogenesis: Too many rodent carcinogens. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 87:7772-7776.
3. Ames, B. N., McCann, J., and Yamasaki, E. 1975. Methods for detecting carcinogens and mutagens with the salmonella/mammalian microsome mutagenicity test. Mutat. Res. 31:347-364.
4. Bellmann, B., Muhle, H., Creutzenberg, O., Dasenbrock, C., Kilpper, R., MacKenzie, J. C., Morrow, P., and Mermelstein, R. 1991. Lung clearance and retention of toner, utilizing a tracer technique, during chronic inhalation exposure in rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 17:300-313.
5. Boffetta, P., Harris, R. E., and Wynder, E. L. 1990. Case-control study of occupational exposure to diesel exhaust and lung cancer risk. Am. J. Ind. Med. 17:577-591.
6. Boffetta, P., Stellman, S. D., and Garfinkel, L. 1988. Diesel exhaust exposure and mortality among males in the American Cancer Society Prospective Study. Am. J. Ind. Med. 14:403-415.
7. 2u-Globulin-mediated male rat nephropathy and kidney cancer: Relevance to human risk assessment. Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology, Research Triangle Park, NC. CIIT Activities 13(4):1-8.
8. Borghoff, S. J., and Lagarde, W. H. 1993. Assessment of binding of 2,4,4-trimethyl-2-pentanol to low-molecular-weight proteins isolated from kidneys of male rats and humans. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 119:228-235.
9. 2u-globulin nephropathy. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 30:349-367.
10. Brightwell, J., Fouillet, X., Cassano-Zoppi, A. L., Bernstein, D., Crawley, F., Duchosal, F., Gatz, R., Percel, S., and Pfeifer, H. 1989. Tumours of the respiratory tract in rats and hamsters following chronic inhalation of engine exhaust emissions. J. Appl. Toxicol. 9:23-31.
11. Burns, P. B., and Swanson, G. M. 1991. The Occupational Cancer Incidence Surveillance Study (OCISS): Risk of lung cancer by usual occupation and industry in the Detroit metropolitan area. Am. J. Ind. Med. 19:655-671.
12. Busby, W. F., Jr., and Newberne, P. M. 1995. Diesel emissions and other substances associated with animal carcinogenicity. In Diesel exhaust: A critical analysis of emissions, exposure, and health effects, pp. 184-220. Cambridge, MA: Health Effects Institute.
13. California Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. Health Risk Assessment for Diesel Exhaust (Preliminary Draft). Sacramento, CA: Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment.
14. Carson, R. 1962. Silent spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
15. Cerutti, P. A., and Trump, B. F. 1991. Inflammation and oxidative stress in carcinogenesis. Cancer Cells 3:1-7.
16. Clean Air Act Amendments. 1970. Clean Air Amendments of 1970, Public Law no. 91-604; 84 STAT. 1676.
17. Clean Air Act Amendments. 1990. Clean Air Amendments, Public Law no. 104; STAT.2399.
18. Cohen, A. J., and Higgins, M. W. P. 1995. Health effects and diesel exhaust: Epidemiology. In Diesel exhaust: A critical analysis of emissions, exposure, and health effects, pp. 251-292. A Special Report of the Institute's Diesel Working Group, Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA, April.
19. Crump, K. S., Lambert, T., and Chen, C. 1991. Assessment of Risk from Exposure to Diesel Engine Emissions: Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for Contract 68-02-4601 (work assignment no. 182). Washington, DC: Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
20. Driscoll, K. E., Carter, J., Oberdörster, G., Pepelko, W., Howard, B., and Hassenbein, D. 1995. Inflammation, cytokine expression and mutagenesis in rat lung after carbon black inhalation. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 15(1):46 (abstr. 249).
21. Driscoll, K. E., Maurer, J. K., Hassenbein, D., Carter, J., Janssen, Y. M. W., Mossman, B. T., Osier, M., and Oberdörster, G. 1994. Contribution of macrophage-derived cytokines and cytokine networks to mineral dust-induced lung inflammation. In Toxic and carcinogenic effects of solid particles in the respiratory tract, eds. U. Mohr, D. L. Dungworth, J. L. Mauderly, and G. Oberdörster, pp. 177-189. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute Press.
22. Drozdowicz, B. Z., Ulrich, C. E., Boothe, A. D., Procter, J. E., and Golberg, L. 1986. Chronic inhalation toxicity and carcinogenicity study of SRC-1 (solvent refined coal) solid in rats - Results from the 6-and 12-month interim sacrifices. Toxicologist 6(1):132.
23. Finkel, A. M. 1994. The case for "plausible conservatism" in choosing and altering defaults. In Science and judgment in risk assessment, Appendix N-1, pp. 601-607. National Research Council, Committee on Risk Assessment of Hazardous Air Pollutants. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
24. Garshick, E., Schenker, M. B., Muñoz, A., Segal, M., Smith, T. J., Woskie, S. R., Hammond, S. K., and Speizer, F. E. 1987. A case-control study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust exposure in railroad workers. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 135:1242-1248.
25. Garshick, E., Schenker, M. B., Muñoz, A., Segal, M., Smith, T. J., Woskie, S. R., Hammond, S. K., and Speizer, F. E. 1988. A retrospective cohort study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust exposure in railroad workers. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 137:820-825.
26. Hall, N. E. L., and Wynder, E. L. 1984. Diesel exhaust exposure and lung cancer: A case-control study. Environ. Res. 34:77-86.
27. Health Effects Institute 1995. Diesel exhaust: A critical analysis of emissions, exposure, and health effects. A Special Report of the Institute's Diesel Working Group, Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA, April.
28. Heinrich, U., Fuhst, R., Rittinghausen, S., Creutzenberg, O., Bellmann, B., Koch, W., and Levsen, K. 1995. Chronic inhalation exposure of Wistar rats and two different strains of mice to diesel engine exhaust, carbon black, and titanium dioxide. Inhal. Toxicol. 7:533-556.
29. Heinrich, U., Muhle, H., Takenaka, S., Ernst, E., Fuhst, R., Mohr, U., Pott, F., and Stöber, W. 1986. Chronic effects on the respiratory tract of hamsters, mice and rats after long-term inhalation of high concentrations of filtered and unfiltered diesel engine emissions. J. Appl. Toxicol. 6:383-395.
30. Henderson, R. F., Pickrell, J. A., Jones, R. K., Sun, J. D., Benson, J. M., Mauderly, J. L., and McClellan, R. O. 1988. Response of rodents to inhaled diluted diesel exhaust: Biochemical and cytological changes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and in lung tissue. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 11:546-567.
31. Hodgson, J. T., and Jones, R. D. 1985. A mortality study of carbon black workers employed at five United Kingdom factors between 1917 and 1980. Arch. Environ. Health 40:261-268.
32. Holland, L. M., Wilson, J. S., Tillery, M. I., and Smith, D. M. 1985. Lung cancer in rats exposed to fibrogenic dusts. In Silica, silicosis and cancer, eds. D. Goldsmith, D. Winn, and C. Shy, pp. 267-279. New York: Praeger.
33. Howe, G. R., Fraser, D., Lindsay, J., Presnal, B., and Yu, S. Z. 1983. Cancer mortality (1965-77) in relation to diesel fume and coal exposure in a cohort of retired railway workers. JNCI 70:1015-1019.
34. Hueper, W. C., Wiley, F., and Wolfe, H. D. 1938. Experimental production of bladder tumors in dogs by administration of beta-naphthylamine. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 20:46-84.
35. Huisingh, J., Bradow, R., Jungers, R., Claxton, L., Zweidinger, R., Tejada, S., Bungarner, J., Duffield, F., Waters, M., Simmon, V. F., Hare, C., Rodriguiz, C., and Snow, L. 1978. Application of bioassay to the characterization of diesel particle emissions. In Application of short-term bioassay in the fractionation and analysis of complex environmental mixtures, eds. M. D. Waters, S. Nesnow, J. L. Huisingh, S. S. Sandhu, and L. Claxton, pp. 381-418. New York: Plenum.
36. IARC. 1972. Some inorganic substances, chlorinated hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, N-nitroso compounds, and natural products. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinogen. Risks Hum. 1. Lyon: IARC.
37. IARC. 1984. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, Part 2, Carbon blacks, mineral oils (lubricant base oils and derived products) and some nitroarenes. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinogen. Risk Chem. Hum. 33. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, Lyon, France, June 7-14, 1983.
38. IARC. 1987. Supplement no. 7. Overall evaluations of carcinogenicity: An updating of IARC Monographs volumes 1-42. Lyon: IARC.
39. IARC. 1989. Diesel and gasoline engine exhausts and some nitroarenes. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinogen. Risks Hum. 46. Lyon: IARC.
40. IARC. 1992. Mechanisms of carcinogenesis in risk identification, eds. H. Vainio, P. N. Magee, D. B. McGregor, and A. J. McMichael, no. 116. Lyon: IARC.
41. IARC. 1994. Some industrial chemicals. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinogen. Risks Hum. 60.
42. IARC. 1995. Wood dust and formaldehyde. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinogen. Risks Hum. 62. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Lyon, France, October 11-18, 1994.
43. IARC. 1996. Printing processes, printing inks, carbon black, and some nitro compounds. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinogen. Risks Hum. 65. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Lyon, France, October 10-17, 1995.
44. Ishinishi, N., Koizumi, A., McClellan, R. O., and Stöber, W., eds. 1986a. Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust. Proc. Int. Satellite Symp. Toxicologica/ Effects of Emissions from Diesel Engines, Tsukuba Science City, Japan, July 26-28. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
45. Ishinishi, N., Kuwabara, N., Nigase, S., Suzuki, T., Ishiwata, S., and Kohno, T. 1986b. Long-term inhalation studies on effects of exhaust from heavy and light duty diesel engines on F344 rats. In Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust, eds. N. Ishinishi, A. Kozumi, R. O. McClellan, and W. Stöber, pp. 329-348. New York: Elsevier.
46. Iwai, K., Udagawa, T., Yamagishi, M., and Yamada, H. 1986. Long-term inhalation studies of diesel exhaust on F344 SPF rats. Incidence of lung cancer and lymphoma. In Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust, eds. N. Ishinishi, A. Koizumi, R. McClellan, and W. Stöber, pp. 349-360. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
47. Jarabek, A. M. 1994. Inhalation RfC methodology: Dosimetric adjustments and dose-response estimation of noncancer toxicity in the upper respiratory tract. Inhal. Toxicol. 6(suppl.):301-325.
48. Kawabata, Y., Iwai, K., Udagawa, T., Tukagoshi, K., and Kazue, H. 1986. Effects of diesel soot on unscheduled DNA synthesis of tracheal epithelium and lung tumor formation. In Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust, eds. N. Ishinishi, A. Koizumi, R. McClellan, and W. Stöber, pp. 213-222. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
49. Kotin, P., Falk, H. L., and Thomas, M. 1955. Aromatic hydrocarbons: III. Presence in the particulate phase of diesel-engine exhausts and the carcinogenicity of exhaust extracts. Ind. Health 11:113-120.
50. 2) by inhalation for two years. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 79:179-192.
51. Lewis, T. R., Morrow, P. E., McClellan, R. O., Raabe, O. G., Kennedy, G. L., Schwetz, B. A., Goehl, T. J., Roycraft, J. H., and Chhabra, R. S. 1989. Contemporary issues in toxicology: Establishing aerosol exposure concentrations for inhalation toxicity studies. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 99:377-383.
52. Lewtas, J., ed. 1982. Toxicological effects of emissions from diesel engines. In Proc. Environmental Protection Agency 1981 Diesel Emissions Symp., Raleigh, NC, October 5-7, 1981. New York: Elsevier.
53. ++] in induction of c-fos, c-jun and c-myc mRNA in rat PTE after oxidative stress. FASEB J. 6:919-924.
54. Martin, J. C., Daniel, H., and Le Bouffant, L. 1977. Short- and long-term experimental study of the toxicity of coal-mine dust and some of ils constituents. In Inhaled particles IV, vol. 1, ed. W. H. Walton, pp. 361-371. Oxford: Pergamon.
55. Mauderly, J. L. 1992. Diesel exhaust. In Environmental toxicants - Human exposures and their health effects, ed. M. Lippmann, pp. 119-162. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
56. Mauderly, J. L. 1994. Contribution of inhalation bioassays to the assessment of human health risks from solid airborne particles. In Toxic and carcinogenic effects of solid particles in the respiratory tract, eds. U. Mohr, D. L. Dungworth, J. L. Mauderly, and G. Oberdörster, pp. 355-365. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute Press.
57. Mauderly, J. L., Banas, D. A., Griffith, W. C., Hahn, F. F., Henderson, R. F., and McClellan, R. O. 1996. Diesel exhaust is not a pulmonary carcinogen in CD-1 mice exposed under conditions carcinogenic to F344 rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., in press.
58. Mauderly, J. L., Gillett, N. A., and Henderson, R. F. 1988. Relationship of lung structural and functional changes to accumulation of diesel exhaust particles. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 32:659-668.
59. Mauderly, J. L., Jones, R. K., Griffith, W. C., Henderson, R. F., and McClellan, R. O. 1987. Diesel exhaust is a pulmonary carcinogen in rats exposed chronically by inhalation. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 9:208-221.
60. Mauderly, J. L., Snipes, M. B., Barr, E. B., Belinsky, S. A., Bond, J. A., Brooks, A. L., Chang, L.-Y., Cheng, Y. S., Gillett, N. A., Griffith, W. C., Henderson, R. F., Mitchell, C. E., Nikula, K. J., and Thomassen, D. G. 1994. Pulmonary Toxicity of Inhaled Diesel Exhaust and Carbon Black in Chronically Exposed Rats, Part 1, Neoplastic and Nonneoplastic Lung Lesions. Research Report Number 68, Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA.
61. McClellan, R. O. 1986a. Conclusions and recommendations: Toxicological effects of emissions from diesel engines. In Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust, eds. N. Ishinishi, A. Koizumi, R. O. McClellan, and W. Stöber, pp. 529-534. Proc. Int. Satellite Symp. Toxicological Effects of Emissions from Diesel Engines, Tsukuba Science City, Japan, July 26-28. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
62. McClellan, R. O. 1986b. Health effects of diesel exhaust: A case study in risk assessment. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 47:1-13.
63. McClellan, R. O. 1986c. Opening remarks: Toxicological effects of emissions from diesel engines. In Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust, eds. N. Ishinishi, A. Koizumi, R. O. McClellan, and W. Stöber, pp. 3-8. Proc. Int. Satellite Symp. Toxicological Effects of Emissions from Diesel Engines, Tsukuba Science City, Japan, July 26-28. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
64. McClellan, R. O. 1987. Health effects of exposure to diesel exhaust particles. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 27:279-300.
65. McClellan, R. O. 1990. Particle overload in the lung: Approaches to improving our knowledge. J. Aerosol Med. 3(suppl.)S-197-S-207.
66. McClellan, R. O., Brooks, A. L., Cuddihy, R. G., Jones, R. K., Mauderly, J. L., and Wolff, R. K. 1982. Inhalation toxicology of diesel exhaust particles. In Proc. Environmental Protection Agency 1931 Diesel Emissions Symp., ed. J. Lewtas, Raleigh, NC, October 5-7, 1981, pp. 99-120. New York: Elsevier.
67. McClellan, R. O., Cuddihy, R. G., Griffith, W. C., and Mauderly, J. L. 1989. Integrating diverse data sets to assess the risk of airborne pollutants. In Assessment of inhalation hazards: Integration and extrapolation using diverse data, eds. U. Mohr, D. V. Bates, D. L. Dungworth, P. N. Lee, R. O. McClellan, and F. J. C. Roe, pp. 3-22. ILSI Monographs. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
68. McClellan, R. O., and North, D. W. 1994. Making full use of scientific information in risk assessment. In Science and judgment in risk assessment, appendix N-2, pp. 629-640. National Research Council, Committee on Risk Assessment of Hazardous Air Pollutants. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
69. Merchant, J. A., Hodpus, T. K., Taylor, G., and Reger, R. 1986. Coal workers' pneumoconiosis and exposure to other carbonaceous dusts. In Occupational respiratory disease, pp. 329-384. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (NIOSH), publication no. 86-102. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
70. Morrow, P. E. 1988. Possible mechanisms to explain dust overloading of the lungs. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 10:369-384.
71. Morrow, P. E. 1994. Mechanisms and significance of "particle overload." In Toxic and carcinogenic effects of solid particles in the respiratory tract, eds. U. Mohr, D. L. Dungworth, J. L. Mauderly, and G. Oberdörster, pp. 17-25. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute Press.
72. Muhle, H., Bellmann, B., Creutzenberg, O., Dasenbrock, C., Ernst, H., Kilpper, R., MacKenzie, J. C., Morrow, P., Mohr, U., Takenaka, S., and Mermelstein, R. 1991. Pulmonary response to toner upon chronic inhalation exposure in rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 17:280-299.
73. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. 1988. Carcinogenic Effects of Exposure to Diesel Exhaust. NIOSH Current Intelligence Bull. 50. DHHS (NIOSH) publication no. 88-116. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control.
74. National Research Council. 1981. Health effects of exposure to diesel exhaust: Impacts of diesel-powered light-duty vehicles. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
75. National Research Council. Committee on the Institutional Means for Assessment of Risks to Public Health. 1983. Risk assessment in the federal government: Managing the process. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
76. National Research Council. Committee on Risk Assessment of Hazardous Air Pollutants. 1994. Science and judgment in risk assessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
77. National Toxicology Program. 1994. Seventh Annual Report on Carcinogens, 2 volumes. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services.
78. Nauss, K. M., and the HEI Diesel Working Group. 1995. Critical issues in assessing the carcinogenicity of diesel exhaust: A synthesis of current knowledge. In Diesel exhaust: A critical analysis of emissions, exposure, and health effects, pp. 11-61. Cambridge, MA: Health Effects Institute.
79. Nguyen, T., Brunson, D., Crespi, C. L., Penman, B. W., Wishnok, J. S., and Tannenbaum, S. R. 1992. DNA damage and mutation in human cells exposed to nitric oxide in vitro. Biochemistry 285:1173-1180.
80. Nikula, K. J., Snipes, M. B., Barr, E. B., Griffith, W. C., Henderson, R. F., and Mauderly, J. L. 1995. Comparative pulmonary toxicities and carcinogenicities of chronically inhaled diesel exhaust and carbon black in F344 rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 25:80-94.
81. Oberdörster, G. 1994. Extrapolation of results from animal inhalation studies with particles to humans? In Toxic and carcinogenic effects of solid particles in the respiratory tract, eds. U. Mohr, D. L. Dungworth, J. L. Mauderly, and G. Oberdörster, pp. 335-353. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute Press.
82. Oberdörster, G., Baggs, R., Gelein, R., Corson, N., Mercer, P., Nguyen, K., and Pepelko, W. 1995. Pulmonary effects of inhaled carbon black in rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 15(1):46 (abstr. 248).
83. Pepelko, W. E., Danner, R. M., and Clarke, N. A., eds. 1980. Health effects of diesel engine emissions, vols. 1 and 2, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
84. Rodericks, J. V. 1992. Calculated risks. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 256 pp.
85. Sawyer, R. F., and Johnson, J. H. 1995. Diesel emissions and control technology. In Diesel exhaust: A critical analysis of emissions, exposure, and health effects, pp. 66-81. A Special Report of the Institute's Diesel Working Group, April. Cambridge, MA: Health Effects Institute.
86. Schenker, M. B., Smith, T., Muñoz, A., Woskie, S., and Speizer, F. E. 1984. Diesel exposure and mortality among railway workers: Result of a pilot study. Br. J. Ind. Med. 41:320-327.
87. Siemiatycki, J., ed. 1991. Risk factors for cancer in the workplace. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
88. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment. Fed. Reg. 51:33992-34003.
89. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Health Assessment Document for Diesel Emissions. Workshop Review Draft, EPA-600/8-90/057A. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Development, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment.
90. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Alpha-2u-globulin: Association with Chemically-Induced Renal Toxicity and Neoplasia in the Male Rat. EPA-625/3-91/019F. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
91. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994a. Draft Revisions to the Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment: External Review Draft, August 1994. EPA/600/BP-92/003. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Development.
92. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994b. Health Assessment Document for Diesel Emissions: External Review Draft. EPA 600/8-90/057. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Development.
93. Vostal, J. J. 1986. Factors limiting the evidence for chemical carcinogenicity of diesel emissions in long-term inhalation experiments. In Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust, eds. N. Ishinishi, A. Koizumi, R. O. McClellan, and W. Stöber, pp. 381-396. Proc. Int. Satellite Symp. Toxicologica/ Effects of Emissions from Diesel Engines, Tsukuba Science City, Japan, July 26-28, 1986. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
94. Watson, A. Y., and Green, G. M. 1995. Noncancer effects of diesel emissions: Animal studies. In Diesel exhaust: A critical analysis of emissions, exposure, and health effects, pp.139-184. Cambridge, MA: Health Effects Institute.
95. Williams, R. R., Stegens, N. L., and Goldsmith, J. R. 1977. Associations of cancer site and type with occupation and industry from the Third National Cancer Survey Interview. JNCI 59:1147-1185.
96. Wink, D. A., Kasprzak, K. S., Maragos, C. M., Elespuru, R. K., Misra, M., Dunams, T. M., Cebula, T. A., Koch, W. H., Andrews, A. W., Allen, J. S., and Keefer, L. K. 1991. DNA deaminating ability and genotoxicity of nitric oxide and its progenitors. Science 254:1001-1003.
97. Wolff, R. K., Henderson, R. F., Snipes, M. B., Griffith, W. C., Mauderly, J. L., Cuddihy, R. G., and McClellan, R. O. 1987. Alterations in particle accumulation and clearance in lungs of rats chronically exposed to diesel exhaust. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 9:154-166.
98. Wolff, R. K., Henderson, R. F., Snipes, M. B., Sun, J. D., Bond, J. A., Mitchell, C. E., Mauderly, J. L., and McClellan, R. O. 1986. Lung retention of diesel soot and associated organic compounds. In Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust, eds. N. Ishinishi, A. Koizumi, R. O. McClellan, and W. Stöber, pp. 199-222. Proc. Int. Satellite Symp. Toxicological Effects of Emissions from Diesel Engines, Tsukuba Science City, Japan, July 26-28, 1986. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
99. Yu, C. P., Yoon, K. J., and Chen, Y. K. 1991. Retention modeling of diesel exhaust particles in rats and humans. J. Aerosol Med. 4:79-115.