Current treatment of pseudomonal infections in the elderly

Drugs and Aging

Volumn 26, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 363-379

  Pappas, Georgios ^a,b   Saplaoura, Kaiti ^a   Falagas, Matthew E ^b,c  

^a Institute of Continuing Medical Education of Ioannina   (Greece)

^b ALFA INSTITUTE OF BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AIBS   (Greece)

^c TUFTS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIKACIN; AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; AZTREONAM; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CARBAPENEM DERIVATIVE; CEFEPIME; CEFOPERAZONE; CEFTAZIDIME; CEPHEM DERIVATIVE; CIPROFLOXACIN; COLISTIN; DORIPENEM; ERTAPENEM; GENTAMICIN; IMIPENEM; LEVOFLOXACIN; MEROPENEM; NETILMICIN; NEUROTROPIC AGENT; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; PIPERACILLIN DERIVATIVE; PIPERACILLIN PLUS TAZOBACTAM; POLYMYXIN B; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; SITAFLOXACIN; TICARCILLIN; TIMENTIN; TOBRAMYCIN; UNINDEXED DRUG;

AGING; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; BACTEREMIA; BACTERIAL GENOME; BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA; BACTERIAL STRAIN; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; CLINICAL FEATURE; COMORBIDITY; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG EFFICACY; FEEDING APPARATUS; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HOSPITAL PATIENT; HUMAN; INFECTION RISK; KIDNEY FUNCTION; MONOTHERAPY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROMUSCULAR DISEASE; NONHUMAN; NURSING HOME; OTOTOXICITY; POLYPHARMACY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA; PSEUDOMONAS INFECTION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; TREATMENT RESPONSE; URINARY CATHETER;

AGE FACTORS; AGED; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE, BACTERIAL; HUMANS; PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA; PSEUDOMONAS INFECTIONS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 68249083568     PISSN: 1170229X     EISSN: 11791969     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00002512-200926050-00001     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Giamarellou H, Kanellakopoulou K. Current therapies for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Crit Care Clin 2008; 24 (2): 261-78
2. Mathers CD, Iburg KM, Salomon JA, et al. Global patterns of healthy life expectancy in the year 2002. BMC Public Health 2004; 4: 66
3. Lubitz J, Cai L, Kramarow E, et al. Health, life expectancy, and health care spending among the elderly. N Engl J Med 2003; 349 (11): 1048-55
4. Crimmins EM, Saito Y. Trends in healthy life expectancy in the United States, 1970-1990: gender, racial, and educational differences. Soc Sci Med 2001; 52 (11): 1629-41
5. Van Rensbergen G, Nawrot TS, Van Hecke E, et al. Where do the elderly die? The impact of nursing home utilisation on the place of death: observations from a mortality cohort study in Flanders. BMC Public Health 2006; 6: 178
6. Cohen-Mansfield J, Marx MS, Lipson S, et al. Predictors of mortality in nursing home residents. J Clin Epidemiol 1999; 52: 273-80
7. Nicolle LE, Strausbaugh LJ, Garibaldi RA. Infections and antibiotic resistance in nursing homes. Clin Microbiol Rev 1996; 9 (1): 1-17
8. Stover CK, Pham XQ, Erwin AL, et al. Complete genome sequence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA01, an opportunistic pathogen. Nature 2000; 406 (6799): 959-64
9. Mesaros N, Nordmann P, Plesiat P, et al. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: resistance and therapeutic options at the turn of the new millennium. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007; 13 (6): 560-78
10. Rogues AM, Boulestreau H, Lasheras A, et al. Contribution of tap water to patient colonisation with Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a medical intensive care unit. J Hosp Infect 2007; 67 (1): 72-8
11. Reuter S, Sigge A, Wiedeck H, et al. Analysis of transmission pathways of Pseudomonas aeruginosa between patients and tap water outlets. Crit Care Med 2002; 30 (10): 2222-8
12. Moolenaar RL, Crutcher JM, San Joaquin VH, et al A prolonged outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a neonatal intensive care unit: did staff fingernails play a role in disease transmission? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000; 21 (2): 80-5
13. Iversen BG, Jacobsen T, Eriksen HM, et al. An outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection caused by contaminated mouth swabs. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44 (6): 794-801
14. Bonten MJ, Bergmans DC, Speijer H, et al. Characteristics of polyclonal endemicity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonization in intensive care units: implications for infection control. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160 (4): 1212-9
15. Adachi M, Ishihara K, Abe S, et al. Professional oral health care by dental hygienists reduced respiratory infections in elderly persons requiring nursing care. Int J Dent Hyg 2007; 5 (2): 69-74
16. El-Solh AA, Pietrantoni C, Bhat A, et al. Colonization of dental plaques: a reservoir of respiratory pathogens for hospital-acquired pneumonia in institutionalized elders. Chest 2004; 126: 1575-82
17. Sammons RL, Kaur D, Neal P. Bacterial survival and biofilm formation on conventional and antibacterial toothbrushes. Biofilms 2004; 1: 123-30
18. Girard G, Bloemberg GV. Central role of quorum sensing in regulating the production of pathogenicity factors in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Future Microbiol 2008; 3 (1): 97-106
19. Van Delden C, Iglewski BH. Cell-to-cell signaling and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Emerg Infect Dis 1998; 4 (4): 551-60
20. Fichtenbaum CJ, Woeltje KF, Powderly WG. Serious Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: a case-control study. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 19 (3): 417-22
21. Monso E, Garcia-Aymerich J, Soler N, et al. Bacterial infection in exacerbated COPD with changes in sputum characteristics. Epidemiol Infect 2003; 131 (1): 799-804
22. Murphy TF, Brauer AL, Eschberger K, et al. Pseudomonas |aeruginosa in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 177 (8): 853-60
23. Taccetti G, Campana S, Neri AS, et al. Antibiotic therapy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis. J Che-mother 2008; 20 (2): 166-9
24. Segal R, Dan M, Pogoreliuk I, et al. Pathogenic colonization of the stomach in enterally fed elderly patients: comparing percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy with nasogastric tube. J Am Geriatr Soc 2006; 54 (12): 1905-8
25. Valenti WM, Trudell RG, Bentley DW. Factors predisposing to oropharyngeal colonization with Gram-negative bacilli in the aged. N Engl J Med 1978; 298 (20): 1108-11
26. Gasink LB, Fishman NO, Nachamkin I, et al. Risk factors for and impact of infection or colonization with aztreonam-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007; 28 (10): 1175-80
27. Arancibia F, Bauer TT, Ewig S, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia due to Gram-negative bacteria and pseudomonas aeruginosa: incidence, risk, and prognosis. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162 (16): 1849-58
28. Mandell LA, Bartlett JG, Dowell SF, et al. Update of practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompetent adults. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37 (11): 1405-33
29. Almirall J, Mesalles E, Klamburg J, et al. Prognostic factors of pneumonia requiring admission to the intensive care unit. Chest 1995; 107 (2): 511-6
30. Hatchette TF, Gupta R, Marrie TJ. Pseudomonas aeruginosa community-acquired pneumonia in previously healthy adults: case report and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31 (6): 1349-56
31. Vidal F, Mensa J, Almela M, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia, with special emphasis on the influence of antibiotic treatment: analysis of 189 episodes. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156 (18): 2121-6
32. Chatzinikolaou I, Abi-Said D, Bodey GP, et al. Recent experience with Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia in patients with cancer: retrospective analysis of 245 episodes. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160 (4): 501-9
33. Cheong HS, Kang CI, Wi YM, et al. Clinical significance and predictors of community-onset Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia. Am J Med 2008; 121 (8): 709-14
34. Johansen TE, Cek M, Naber KG, et al. Hospital acquired urinary tract infections in urology departments: pathogens, susceptibility and use of antibiotics. Data from the PEP and PEAP-studies. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006; 28 Suppl. 1: S91-107
35. Driscoll JA, Brody SL, Kollef MH. The epidemiology, pathogenesis and treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Drugs 2007; 67 (3): 351-68
36. Micek ST, Kollef KE, Reichley RM, et al. Health care-associated pneumonia and community-acquired pneumonia: a single-center experience. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51 (10): 3568-73
37. Pareja A, Bernal C, Leyva A, et al. Etiologic study of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 1992; 101 (5): 1207-10
38. Van Delden C. Pseudomonas aeruginosa bloodstream infections: how should we treat them? Int J Antimicrob Agents 2007; 30 Suppl. 1: S71-5
39. Lin YT, Chen LK, Lin MH, et al. Asymptomatic bacteriuria among the institutionalized elderly. J Chin Med Assoc 2006; 69 (5): 213-7
40. Dubois V, Arpin C, Noury P, et al. Prolonged outbreak of infection due to TEM-21-producing strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacteria in a nursing home. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43 (8): 4129-38
41. Smith PW, Seip CW, Schaefer SC, et al. Microbiologic survey of long-term care facilities. Am J Infect Control 2000; 28 (1): 8-13
42. Hancock RE. Resistance mechanisms in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other nonfermentative Gram-negative bacteria. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27 Suppl. 1: S93-9
43. Lister PD. Beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations with extended-spectrum penicillins: factors influencing antibacterial activity against Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20 (9 Pt 2): 213S-8S
44. Lodise Jr TP, Lomaestro B, Drusano GL. Piperacillin-tazobactam for Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection: clinical implications of an extended-infusion dosing strategy. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44 (3): 357-63
45. Tam V, Gamez EA, Weston JS, et al. Outcomes of bacter-emia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa with reduced susceptibility to piperacillin-tazobactam: implications on the appropriateness of the resistance breakpoint. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46 (6): 862-7
46. Jones RN, Kirby JT, Beach ML, etal. Geographic variations in activity of broad-spectrum beta-lactams against Pseudomonas aeruginosa: summary of the worldwide SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1997-2000). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2002; 43 (3): 239-43
47. Livermore DM. Of Pseudomonas porins, pumps and car-bapenems. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001; 47 (3): 247-50
48. Santos Filho L, Eagye KJ, Kuti JL, et al. Addressing resistance evolution in Pseudomonas aeruginosa using pharmacodynamic modelling: application to meropenem dosage and combination therapy. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007; 13 (6): 579-85
49. Jones RN, Huynh HK, Biedenbach DJ, et al. Doripenem (S-4661), a novel carbapenem: comparative activity against contemporary pathogens including bactericidal action and preliminary in vitro methods evaluations. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 54 (1): 144-54
50. Mushtaq S, Ge Y, Livermore DM. Doripenem versus Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro: activity against characterized isolates, mutants, and transconjugants and resistance selection potential. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48 (8): 3086-92
51. Bhavnani SM, Hammel JP, Cirincione BB, et al. Use of pharmacokinetic- pharmacodynamic target attainment analyses to support phase 2 and 3 dosing strategies for doripenem. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49 (9): 3944-7
52. Tennenberg AM, Davis NB, Wu SC, et al. Pneumonia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa: the levofloxacin clinical trials experience. Curr Med Res Opin 2006; 22 (5): 843-50
53. Piddock LJ, Johnson M, Ricci V, et al. Activities of new fluoroquinolones against fluoroquinolone-resistant pathogens of the lower respiratory tract. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42 (11): 2956-60
54. Shapiro MA, Sesnie JC, Desaty TM, et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of clinafloxacin in a Pseudomonas aeruginosa mouse renal abscess model. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998; 41 (3): 403-5
55. Giamarellou H, Zissis NP, Tagari G, et al. In vitro synergistic activities of aminoglycosides and new beta-lactams against multiresistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1984; 25 (4): 534-6
56. Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Kentepozidis N, Antonopoulou A, et al. Postantibiotic effect of antimicrobial combinations on multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2005; 51 (2): 113-7
57. Michalopoulos AS, Tsiodras S, Rellos K, et al. Colistin treatment in patients with ICU-acquired infections caused by multiresistant Gram-negative bacteria: the renaissance of an old antibiotic. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11 (2): 115-21
58. Falagas ME, Kasiakou SK. Colistin: the revival of polymyxins for the management of multidrug-resistant gramnegative bacterial infections. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40 (9): 1333-41
59. Kasiakou SK, Michalopoulos A, Soteriades ES, et al. Combination therapy with intravenous colistin for management of infections due to multidrug-resistant Gramnegative bacteria in patients without cystic fibrosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49 (8): 3136-46
60. Falagas ME, Fragoulis KN, Kasiakou SK, et al. Nephrotoxicity of intravenous colistin: a prospective evaluation. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2005; 26 (6): 504-7
61. Horianopoulou M, Lambropoulos S, Papafragas E, et al. Effect of aerosolized colistin on multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in bronchial secretions of patients without cystic fibrosis. J Chemother 2005; 17 (5): 536-8
62. Falagas ME, Kasiakou SK, Kofteridis DP, et al. Effectiveness and nephrotoxicity of intravenous colistin for treatment of patients with infections due to polymyxin-only-susceptible (POS) Gram-negative bacteria. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2006; 25 (9): 596-9
63. Kallel H, Hergafi L, Bahloul M, et al. Safety and efficacy of colistin compared with imipenem in the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a matched case-control study. Intensive Care Med 2007; 33 (7): 1162-7
64. Hachem RY, Chemaly RF, Ahmar CA, et al. Colistin is effective in treatment of infections caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cancer patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51 (6): 1905-11
65. Falagas ME, Kasiakou SK. Use of international units when dosing colistin will help decrease confusion related to various formulations of the drug around the world. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50 (6): 2274-5
66. Furtado GH, d'Azevedo PA, Santos AF, et al. Intravenous polymyxin B for the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2007; 30 (4): 315-9
67. Kang CI, Kim SH, Kim HB, et al. Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: risk factors for mortality and influence of delayed receipt of effective antimicrobial therapy on clinical outcome. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37 (6): 745-51
68. Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Sambatakou H, Galani I, et al. In vitro interaction of colistin and rifampin on multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Chemother 2003; 15 (3): 235-8
69. Falagas ME, Kanellopoulou MD, Karageorgopoulos DE, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of multidrug-resistant Gram negative bacteria to fosfomycin. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 27 (6): 439-43
70. Kobayashi Y, Sumitani Y, Sugita K, et al. Antimicrobial activity of fosfomycin against multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2007; 30 (6): 563-4
71. Morike K, Schwab M, Klotz U. Use of aminoglycosides in elderly patients: pharmacokinetic and clinical considerations. Drugs Aging 1997; 10 (4): 259-77
72. Norrby SR. Neurotoxicity of carbapenem antibacterials. Drug Saf 1996; 15 (2): 87-90
73. Paterson DL, Robson JM, Wagener MM. Risk factors for toxicity in elderly patients given aminoglycosides once daily. J Gen Intern Med 1998; 13 (11): 735-9
74. Baciewicz AM, Sokos DR, Cowan RI. Aminoglycoside-associated nephrotoxicity in the elderly. Ann Pharmac-other 2003; 37 (2): 182-6
75. Barza M, Ioannidis JP, Cappelleri JC, et al. Single or multiple daily doses of aminoglycosides: a meta-analysis. BMJ 1996; 312 (7027): 338-45
76. Raveh D, Kopyt M, Hite Y, et al. Risk factors for nephrotoxicity in elderly patients receiving once-daily aminoglycosides. QJM 2002; 95 (5): 291-7
77. Milton JC, Hill-Smith I, Jackson SH. Prescribing for older people. BMJ 2008; 336 (7644): 606-9
78. Matthaiou DK, Michalopoulos A, Rafailidis PI, et al. Risk factors associated with the isolation of colistin-resistant Gram-negative bacteria: a matched case-control study. Crit Care Med 2008; 36 (3): 807-11
79. Walkty A, Decorby M, Nichol K, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates obtained from patients in Canadian intensive care units as part of the Canadian National Intensive Care Unit study. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 61 (2): 217-21
80. Denton M, Kerr K, Mooney L, et al. Transmission of colistin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa between patients attending a pediatric cystic fibrosis center. Pediatr Pulmonol 2002; 34 (4): 257-61
81. Landman D, Bratu S, Alam M, et al. Citywide emergence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains with reduced susceptibility to polymyxin B. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 55 (6): 954-7
82. Carmeli Y, Troillet N, Karchmer AW, et al. Health and economic outcomes of antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159 (10): 1127-32
83. Falagas ME, Koletsi PK, Bliziotis IA. The diversity of definitions of multidrug-resistant (MDR) and pandrug-resistant (PDR) Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Med Microbiol 2006; 55 (Pt 12): 1619-29
84. Paterson DL. The epidemiological profile of infections with multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43 Suppl. 2: S43-8
85. Rossolini GM, Mantengoli E. Treatment and control of severe infections caused by multiresistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11 Suppl. 4: 17-32
86. Bonomo RA, Szabo D. Mechanisms of multidrug resistance in Acinetobacter species and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43 Suppl. 2: S49-56
87. Livermore DM. Multiple mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: our worst nightmare? Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34 (5): 634-40
88. Nordmann P, Poirel L. Emerging carbapenemases in Gram-negative aerobes. Clin Microbiol Infect 2002; 8 (6): 321-31
89. Giakkoupi P, Petrikkos G, Tzouvelekis LS, et al. Spread of integron-associated VIM-type metallo-beta-lactamase genes among imipenem-nonsusceptible Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains in Greek hospitals. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41 (2): 822-5
90. Reinhardt A, Kohler T, Wood P, et al. Development and persistence of antimicrobial resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a longitudinal observation in mechanically ventilated patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51 (4): 1341-50
91. Lepper PM, Grusa E, Reichl H, et al. Consumption of imipenem correlates with beta-lactam resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46 (9): 2920-5
92. Carmeli Y, Troillet N, Eliopoulos GM, et al. Emergence of antibiotic-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: comparison of risks associated with different antipseudomonal agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43 (6): 1379-82
93. Bratu S, Quale J, Cebular S, et al. Multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Brooklyn, New York: molecular epidemiology and in vitro activity of polymyxin B. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2005; 24 (3): 196-201
94. Cunha BA. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: resistance and therapy. Semin Respir Infect 2002; 17 (3): 231-9
95. Harris AD, Smith D, Johnson JA, et al. Risk factors for imipenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa among hospitalized patients. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34 (3): 340-5
96. Drenkard E. Antimicrobial resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Microbes Infect 2003; 5 (13): 1213-9
97. Poirel L, Lambert T, Turkoglu S, et al. Characterization of Class 1 integrons from Pseudomonas aeruginosa that contain the bla(VIM-2) carbapenem-hydrolyzing beta-lactamase gene and of two novel aminoglycoside resistance gene cassettes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45 (2): 546-52
98. Lodise TP, Miller CD, Graves J, et al. Clinical prediction tool to identify patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa respiratory tract infections at greatest risk for multidrug resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51 (2): 417-22
99. Tacconelli E, Tumbarello M, BertagnolioS,et al. Multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa bloodstream infections: analysis of trends in prevalence and epidemiology. Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8 (2): 220-1
100. Nouer SA, Nucci M, de-Oliveira MP, et al. Risk factors for acquisition of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa producing SPM metallo-beta-lactamase. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49 (9): 3663-7
101. Paramythiotou E, Lucet JC, Timsit JF, et al. Acquisition of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients in intensive care units: role of antibiotics with antipseudomonal activity. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38 (5): 670-7
102. Defez C, Fabbro-Peray P, Bouziges N, et al. Risk factors for multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa nosocomial infection. J Hosp Infect 2004; 57 (3): 209-16
103. Falagas ME, Kopterides P. Risk factors for the isolation of multi-drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a systematic review of the literature. J Hosp Infect 2006; 64 (1): 7-15
104. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 2004; 32 (3): 858-73
105. Micek ST, Lloyd AE, Ritchie DJ, et al. Pseudomonas aeruginosa bloodstream infection: importance of appropriate initial antimicrobial treatment. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49 (4): 1306-11
106. Chamot E, Boffi El, Amari E, et al. Effectiveness of combination antimicrobial therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47 (9): 2756-64
107. Paul M, Soares-Weiser K, Leibovici L. Beta lactam monotherapy versus beta lactam-aminoglycoside combination therapy for fever with neutropenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2003; 326 (7399): 1111
108. Paul M, Benuri-Silbiger I, Soares-Weiser K, et al. Beta lactam monotherapy versus beta lactam-aminoglycoside combination therapy for sepsis in immunocompetent patients: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ 2004; 328 (7441): 668
109. Heyland DK, Dodek P, Muscedere J, et al. Randomized trial of combination versus monotherapy for the empiric treatment of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2008; 36 (3): 737-44
110. El Amari EB, Chamot E, Auckenthaler R, et al. Influence of previous exposure to antibiotic therapy on the susceptibility pattern of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremic isolates. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33 (11): 1859-64
111. Fish DN, Piscitelli SC, Danziger LH. Development of resistance during antimicrobial therapy: a review of antibiotic classes and patient characteristics in 173 studies. Pharmacotherapy 1995; 15 (3): 279-91
112. Safdar N, Handelsman J, Maki DG. Does combination antimicrobial therapy reduce mortality in Gram-negative bacteraemia? A meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2004; 4 (8): 519-27
113. Rios FG, Luna CM, Maskin B, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia due to colistin susceptible-only microorganisms. Eur Respir J 2007; 30 (2): 307-13
114. Falagas ME, Koletsi PK, Kopterides P, et al. Risk factors for isolation of strains susceptible only to polymyxin among patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50 (7): 2541-3
115. Erdem I, Kaynar-Tascioglu J, Kaya B, et al. The comparison of the in vitro effect of imipenem or meropenem combined with ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin against multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2002; 20 (5): 384-6
116. American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171 (4): 388-416
117. Hughes WT, Armstrong D, Bodey GP, et al. 1997 guidelines for the use of antimicrobial agents in neutropenic patients with unexplained fever. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25 (3): 551-73
118. Kuikka A, Valtonen VV. Factors associated with improved outcome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia in a Finnish university hospital. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1998; 17 (10): 701-8
119. Chastre J, Wolff M, Fagon JY, et al. Comparison of 8 vs 15 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a randomized trial. JAMA 2003; 290 (19): 2588-98
120. Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ. Macrolides beyond the conventional antimicrobials: a class of potent immunomodulators. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008; 31 (1): 12-20
121. Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Bolanos N, Laoutaris G, et al. Immunomodulatory intervention in sepsis by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa with thalidomide: an experimental study. BMC Infect Dis 2005; 5: 51
122. Yau YH, Ho B, Tan NS, et al. High therapeutic index of factor C Sushi peptides: potent antimicrobials against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45 (10): 2820-5