Journeymen, middlemen: Travel, transculture, and technology in the origins of muslim printing

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 41, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 203-224

  Green, Nile ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; ISLAMISM; NINETEENTH CENTURY; TECHNOLOGY; TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER;

EID: 68149104107     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: 14716380     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743809090631     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. On the earlier printers, see Hartmut Bobzin, "Imitation und Imagination: Bemerkungen zu einigen frühen europäischen Drücken mit Arabischen Lettern," in Das gedruckte Buch im Vorderen Orient ed. Ulrich Marzolph (Dortmund, Germany: Verlag für Orientkunde, 2002),
2. and Wahid Gdoura, Le début de l'imprimerie arabe à Istanbul et en Syrie: Evolution de l'évironnement culturel (1706-1787) (Tunis, Tunisia: Institut Supérieur de Documentation, 1985). Note that the present article deals with Muslim printing and not the separate issues concerning earlier Christian printing in the Middle East.
3. For the most current survey, see Eva Hanebutt-Benz, Dagmar Glass, and Geoffrey Roper, eds., Middle Eastern Languages and the Print Revolution (Westhofen, Germany: WVA-Verlag Skulima, 2002).
4. Mirza Salih Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi ed. Ghulam Husayn Mirza Salih (Tehran: Nashr-e Tarikh-e Iran, 1985). I have also consulted other editions (see the following) and the original manuscript (British Library, Oriental and India Office Collections, Add. 24,034), particularly to clarify the orthography of personal names underlying the following historical reconstructions.
5. Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
6. Juan R. I. Cole, "Printing and Urban Islam in the Mediterranean World, 1890-1920," in Modernity & Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean, ed. Leila Tarazi Fawaz and Christopher A. Bayly (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
7. Francis Robinson, "Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the Impact of Print," Modern Asian Studies 27 (1993): 229-51.
8. For a critique of this approach, see Ian Proudfoot, "Mass Producing Houri's Moles, or Aesthetics and Choice of Technology in Early Muslim Book Printing," in Islam: Essays on Scripture, Thought and Society ed. Peter G. Riddell and Tony Street (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997).
9. On the importance of a social historical reading of print transfer, see Lutz Berger, "Zur Problematik der späten Einführung des Buchdrucks in der islamischen Welt," in Marzolph, Das gedruckte Buch im Vorderen Orient.
10. Ian Inkster, "Technology in World History: Cultures of Constraint and Innovation, Emulation, and Technology Transfer," Comparative Technology Transfer and Society 5 (2007): 108-27.
11. On "the cultural work that has to be performed in the conception, development, and implementation of new technologies," see Knut H. Sorensen, "Cultural Politics of Technology: Combining Critical and Constructive Interventions?" Science, Technology & Human Values 29 (2004): 184-90.
12. I have adapted the notion of transculture from Nasrin Rahimieh, Missing Persians:DIscovering Voices in Iranian Cultural History (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2001).
13. Gdoura, Le début de l'imprimerie arabe à Istanbul et en Syrie 193-96,
14. and Johann Strauss, "Kütüp ve Resail-i Mevkute: Printing and Publishing in a Multi-Ethnic Society," in Late Ottoman Society: The Intellectual Legacy, ed. Elizabeth Özdalga (London: Routledge, 2005).
15. When printing recommenced in Istanbul around 1830, after Müteferrika's experiment, it was through the migration and transnational collaboration of the Marseilles cousins Henri Cayol (1805-65) and Jacques Cayol. See Grégoire Zellich, Notice historique sur la lithographie et sur les origines de son introduction en Turquie (Constantinople: A. Zellich Fils, 1895).
16. The problem was perennial: An Armenian merchant in 1843 imported a modern press from Java to New Julfa in Iran, where it then lay redundant in the Vanak church because no one knew how to use it. Husayn Mirza'i Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran (Tehran: Intisharat Gulshan-e Raz, 1999), 9.
17. Willem M. Floor, "Čāp," Encyclopaedia Iranica
18. Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran
19. Ulrich Marzolph, "Persian Incunabula: A Definition and Assessment," Gutenberg Jahrbuch (2007): 205-20
20. and Farid Qasimi, Avvalinha-ye Matbu'at-e Iran (Tehran: Nashr-e Abi, 2004).
21. For summaries of Salih's career, see Husayn Mahbubi Ardakani, "Duvvumin Karvan-e Marifat," Yaghma 18 (1965)
22. idem, Tarikh-e Mu'assasat-e Tamaddoni-ye Jadid dar Iran, 3 vols. (Tehran: Anjuman-e Danishjuyan-e Danishgah-e Tihran, 1975), 1:176-79, 222-24
23. and Qasimi, Avvalinha-ye Matbu'at-e Iran, 9-141.
24. Qasimi, ibid., 15.
25. Bodleian Library, Ouseley ms 159, colophon dated 1812. The travelogue is also printed in Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi.
26. The original manuscript bears two titles - Su'al u Jawab (Questions and Answers) and Guftagu-ye Farsi (Persian Conversation) - and is held at the Bodleian Library (Ouseley ms 390).
27. William Price, Persian Dialogues, Composed for the Author by Mirza Sauli, of Shiraz (Worcester, U.K.: S.n., 1822).
28. C. A. Storey, "The Beginnings of Persian Printing in India," in Oriental Studies in Honour of Cursetji Erachji Pavry, ed. J. D. Cursetji Pavry (London: Oxford University Press, 1933).
29. Alan H. Barrett, "A Memoir of Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph D'Arcy, R. A. 1780-1848," Iran 43 (2005): 241-73.
30. Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 349-50.
31. On these ambitions, see ibid., 318-20.
32. On the poor state of science, see G. L. E. Turner, "Experimental Science in Early Nineteenth-Century Oxford," History of Universities 8 (1989): 117-35.
33. "The Persian Princes," The Times, 7 December 1818, 3.
34. Olinthus Gregory, Letters to a Friend, on the Evidences, Doctrines, and Duties of the Christian Religion (London: H. G. Bohn, 1851).
35. Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 319-20, 331-32, 340.
36. Ibid., 169-70.
37. "John Bisset," Papers of Freddie Percy (SM/17/1), Whitgift School Archives, Croydon. Thanks to the Whitgift Archivist, William G. Wood, for providing access.
38. Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 169-70, 311-13.
39. F.O. 60/23 (Public Record Office, London).
40. Nile Green, "The Development of Arabic-Script Typography in Georgian Britain," Printing History n.s. 5 (2009),
41. and Storey, "The Beginnings of Persian Printing in India."
42. Twelfth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society for the Year 1816 (London: Tilling & Hughes, 1816), 10, 39, 79.
43. William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society 5 vols. (London: J. Murray, 1904-10), 1:64,
44. and Green, "The Development of Arabic-Script Typography in Georgian Britain."
45. "Account of the Rev. Mr. Lee," Oxford University and City Herald 26 September 1818, back page: "Mr. Lee has moreover made a new fount of letter for Hindostanee [i.e., Urdu] and Persian printing." On the meetings, Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi 350-52.
46. Shirazi, ibid., 167-68.
47. On a similar collaboration, see Michael H. Fisher, "Persian Professor in Britain: Mirza Muhammad Ibrahim at the East India Company's College, 1826-44," Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 21 (2001): 24-32,
48. and Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi, Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and Historiography (New York: Palgrave, 2001), chap. 2.
49. Mathews's Bristol Guide; Being a Complete Ancient and Modern History of the City of Bristol, the Hotwells and Clifton (Bristol, U.K.: printed and sold by Joseph Mathews and sold by the booksellers, 1819), 94.
50. For Salih's tour of Bristol's glass, soap, and brass factories, see Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 334-35; elsewhere, 207-209.
51. Nile Green, "Paper Modernity? Notes on an Iranian Industrial Tour, 1818," Iran: Journal of Persian Studies 46 (2008).
52. Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 345, 353.
53. Ibid., 353, 355 (dāns)
54. Humayun Shahidi, ed., Guzarish-e Safar-e Mirza Salih Shirazi (Kazaruni) (Tehran: Rah-e Naw, 1983), 369 (vāns)
55. Safarnama-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, ed. Isma'il-e Ra'in (Tehran: Ruzan, 1968), 375 (dāns).
56. Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran, 10-11, quotes two versions of the name (vāls and vāns).
57. Philip A. H. Brown, London Publishers and Printers: A Tentative List, c. 1800-1870 (London: British Museum, 1961),
58. and William B. Todd, A Directory of Printers and Others in Allied Trades, London and Vicinity 1800-1840 (London: Printing Historical Society, 1972).
59. The ta was variously read as a lam or nūn.
60. Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1:64.
61. On Watts, see Talbot Baines Reed, A History of the Old English Letter Foundries (London: Eliot Stock, 1887), 362-63.
62. David E. Jenkins, The Life of the Rev. Thomas Charles, B.A., of Bala 3 vols. (Denbigh, U.K.: Llewelyn Jenkins, 1908), 3:68.
63. Alice M. Lee, A Scholar of a Past Generation: A Brief Memoir of Samuel Lee, by his Daughter (London: Seely and Co. Limited, 1896).
64. Oriental and Other Types in 67 Languages or Dialects, Principally Prepared by R. Watts and Now in Use in W. M. Watts's Office (London: W. M. Watts, 1851).
65. D. N. Griffiths, "Prayer-Book Translations in the Nineteenth Century," The Library, sixth series, 6, 1 (1984): 3, 15.
66. The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ; Translated into the Hindoostanee Language from the Original Greek by H. Martyn; and Afterwards Carefully Revised with the Assistance of Mirza Fitrit and Other Learned Natives (London: Printed by Richard Watts for the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1819).
67. On Lee's involvement, see T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of Holy Scripture in the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 2 vols. (London: The Bible House, 1903-1911), 2:744.
68. Ibid., 2:69-70.
69. Ibid., 2:69.
70. Kitab al-Ahd al-Jadid, ya'ni, Injil al-Muqaddas, li-Rabbina Yasu'al-Masih (London: Richard Watts, 1821).
71. Darlow and Moule, Historical Catalogue, 2:1204.
72. Twelfth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 10
73. Thirteenth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society for the Year 1817 (London: Tilling & Hughes, 1817), 338.
74. For superlative detail, see Richard-Gabriel Rummonds, Nineteenth-Century Printing Practices and the Iron Handpress, 2 vols. (London: British Library, 2004).
75. On operating imported handpresses in Iran, see Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran, 12-13.
76. Leslie Howsam, Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 22.
77. Michael H. Fisher, Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Travellers and Settlers in Britain, 1600-1857 (Delhi, India: Permanent Black, 2004), 121-23.
78. On Watts's similar reliance on professor Richard Porson (1759-1808) of Cambridge for the original calligraphy of his Greek type, see J. H. Bowman, Greek Printing Types in Britain in the Nineteenth Century: A Catalogue (Oxford: Oxford Bibliographical Society, 1992), 47.
79. Walter Tracey, "Advances in Arabic Printing," Bulletin of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies 2 (1975): 87-93.
80. Dagmar Glass, "Die nahda und ihre Technik im 19.
81. Jahrhundert: Arabische Druckereien in Ägypten und Syrien" in Marzolph, Das gedruckte Buch im Vorderen Orient, 59-64,
82. and G. J. Roper, "The Beginnings of Arabic Printing by the ABCFM, 1822-1841," Harvard Library Bulletin, new series, 9 (1998): 50-68.
83. Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 345.
84. For statistical data, see Green, "Development of Arabic-Script Typography."
85. Thirteenth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 338.
86. Leigh's New Picture of London (London: Samuel Leigh, 1819).
87. Howsam, Cheap Bibles.
88. Roper, "Beginnings of Arabic Printing by the ABCFM."
89. David J. Jeremy, Transatlantic Industrial Revolution: The Diffusion of Textile Technologies between Britain and America, 1790-1830s (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981).
90. Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 353, 355-58.
91. John M. Duncan, Travels through Part of the United States and Canada in 1818 and 1819, 2 vols. (Glasgow, Scotland: University Press, 1823), 1:201.
92. Duncan, Travels through Part of the United States and Canada, 1:201.
93. Ethan B. Lipton and Michael A. Sprenger, eds., The Eagle Soars: The Story of the Columbian Press (Los Angeles: California State University, 1976).
94. Based on portable presses available in London in 1819: Rummonds, Nineteenth-Century Printing Practices, 2:859.
95. Don F. McKenzie, "The Sociology of a Text: Oral Culture, Literacy and Print in Early New Zealand," in The Social History of Language, ed. Peter Burke and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
96. Samuel Lee and Thomas Kendall, Grammar and Vocabulary of the Language of New Zealand (London: Printed by Richard Watts for the Church Missionary Society, 1820).
97. Reported in Caledonian Mercury (19 April 1819), Christian Observer and Advocate, 1819, 262-64, and Missionary Register for 1819, 180-82. Clymer's press was valued at £100.
98. Colin Clair, A History of Printing in Britain (London: Cassell, 1965), 210-18,
99. and Tom Mole, "Stanhope Press," The Literary Encyclopedia, Literary Dictionary Company, 2002, http://www.litencyc.com (accessed 1 January 2008).
100. "Account of the Rev. Mr. Lee," Oxford University and City Herald (26 September 1818), back page: "Mr. Lee has in hand a new translation of the Old Testament into Persian, in conjunction with Mirza Khaleel."
101. Twelfth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 10.
102. On Ja-far's translations in Saint Petersburg in the mid-1820s, also with Ouseley and Lee's collaboration, see George Bullen, Catalogue of the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society (London: Reed and Pardon, 1857), 5, 80.
103. William Roberts, Memoirs of the Life of Hannah More, 2 vols. (London: R. B. Seeley & W. Burnside, 1836), 246, based on More's own diary.
104. For Salih's version and confirmation of receiving Practical Piety (the title transcribed from the English), see Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 331-32.
105. Muhammad Sadr-e Hashimi, Tarikh-e Jara'id va Majallat-e Iran, 4 vols. (Isfahan, Iran: Intisharat-e Kamal, 1984-85),
106. and Qasimi, Avvalinha-ye Matbu'at-e Iran, especially Chapter 1.
107. An early copy of Salih's subsequent newspaper, Akhbar-e Vaqa'i' (Current News), was published in "Persian Newspaper and Translation," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 5 (1839): 355-71.
108. Also Hashimi Tarikh-e Jara'id, 1:2.
109. Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 352.
110. On London's newspaper presses as seen in 1887 by the Iranian Hajji Pirzada (d. 1903), see Safarnama-ye Hajji Muhammad 'Ali Pirzada, 1303-1306, ed. Haiz Farmanfarma'iyan (Tehran: Danishgah-e Tihran, 1963-65), 301-302.
111. Salih and/or his companions featured in The Times on 29 September 1818, 7 December 1818, and 18 January 1823.
112. In The Times alone, articles - often frivolous - on Abu al-Hasan appeared on 21 and 30 December 1809, 12 and 18 January 1810, 23 February 1810, 24 and 29 March 1810, 27 April 1819, 1 and 24 May 1819, and 1 and 10 June 1819.
113. For Abu al-Hasan's own exasperated observations on England's newspapers, see M. M. Cloake, ed. and trans., A Persian at the Court of King George 1809-10: The Journal of Mirza Abu'l Hassan Khan (London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1988), 83, 248, 253.
114. On English newspapers and the evolution of a "public opinion," see Hannah Barker, Newspapers, Politics and English Society, 1695-1855 (Harlow, U.K.: Longman, 2000), especially 196-205 on Salih's period.
115. On Salih's role as "press-secretary" and munshī, respectively, see Farid Qasimi, Sarguzasht-e Matbu'at-e Iran: Ruzgar-e Muhammad Shah va Nasir al-Din Shah, 2 vols. (Tehran: Vizarat-e Farhang va Irshad-e Islami, 2001),
116. and Document 4 in Fatima Qaziha, ed., Asnad-e Ravabit-e Iran va Rusiya dar dawran-e Fath 'Ali Shah va Muhammad Shah Qajar, 1240-1263 (1824-1848) (Tehran: Markaz-e Asnad-e Tarikh-e Diplumasi, 2001), 17-18. I am grateful to an anonymous reader for the latter reference.
117. Shirazi, Majmu'a-ye Safarnamaha-ye Mirza Salih Shirazi, 278.
118. Edward G. Browne, The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914), 11
119. Hashimi, Tarikh-e Jara'id 1:3-5.
120. "Newspaper" (1839): 355-71. This is not, as stated by previous scholars, the sole remaining copy: Two further issues from Rabi'II 1253 (July 1837) exist as British Library, Or. Mic. 4776.
121. "Newspaper" (1839): 359-60 (in Persian), 367-68 (in English).
122. "Newspaper" (1839): 362 (in Persian), 369 (in English).
123. Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran, 13.
124. On the unconfirmed 1828 Gulistan, see Qasimi, Sarguzasht-e Matbu'at-e Iran, 1:191.
125. Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1:219-22.
126. On the early years of the Saint Petersburg agency, see Stephen Batalden, "The BFBS Petersburg Agency and Russian Biblical Translation, 1856-1875," in Sowing the Word: The Cultural Impact of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804-2004, ed. Stephen K. Batalden, Kathleen Cann, and John Dean (Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2004), 169-75.
127. Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1:180,
128. and Sixteenth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 149-50.
129. On Russia's very few early Arabic imprints, see Victor Charles Chauvin, Bibliographie des ouvrages arabes ou relatifs aux Arabes, publiés dans l'Europe chrétienne de 1810 à 1885 (Liège, Belgium: H. Vaillant- Carmanne, 1892-1919), 412,
130. and Miroslav Krek, A Gazetteer of Arabic Printing (Weston, Mass.: privately printed, 1977), 74.
131. Qasimi, Sarguzasht-e Matbu'at-e Iran, 1:185.
132. The book is probably identical to a work often described as the second book printed in Iran, the Fathnama (Book of Conquest): See Marzolph, "Persian Incunabula."
133. For an original sale document dated Shavval 1232/August 1817 detailing the sale for 200 tūmān from an Aqa Nawruz to 'Abbas Mirza of a "printing house" (mangana-khāna) with an iron wheel (charkh-e āhan), so identifying it as one of the new iron handpresses, see Christoph Werner, An Iranian Town in Transition: A Social and Economic History of the Elites of Tabriz 1747-1848 (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2000), appendix, document 4.
134. I have consulted these books in the Royal Asiatic Society. Details of their bequest appear in Anon., "Biographical Sketch of his Late Royal Highness Abbas Mirza, Prince Royal of Persia, Hon. MRAS," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1 (1834): 323.
135. Ulrich Marzolph, "Der lithographische Druck einer illustrierten persischen Prophetengeschichte (1267/1850)" in Marzolph, Das gedruckte Buch im Vorderen Orient, 86.
136. Floor, "Čāp" and Kamran Ekbal and Lutz Richter-Bernburg, "John Cormick," Encyclopaedia Iranica. However, Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran, 13, attributes the book to Muhammad ibn al-Sabur al-Khu'i.
137. On the 'ulama' consultation, see Shahla Babazada, Tarikh-e Chap dar Iran (Tehran: Tahuri, 1999), 14-15.
138. On Nasir al-din Shah's subsequent adoption of a censor system, see Gu'il Kuhan, Tarikh-e Sansur dar Matbu'at-e Iran (Tehran: Agah, 1981-83).
139. T. X. Bianchi, "Catalogue général des livres arabes, persans et turcs imprimé à Boulac en Egypte dépuis l'introduction de l'imprimerie dans ce pays," Journal Asiatique 4 (1843).
140. Khalil Sabat, Tarikh al-Taba'a fi al-Sharq al-'Arabi (Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1966), 150-52.
141. On Muhammad 'Ali's earlier engagements with Italy, see Alain Silvera, "The First Egyptian Student Mission to France under Muhammad Ali," Middle Eastern Studies 16 (1980): 1-22.
142. Giovanni Battista Brocchi, Giornale delle osservazioni fatte ne' viaggi in Egitto, nella Siria e nella Nubia, 5 vols. (Bassano, Italy: A. Roberti, 1841), 1:172-74,
143. and Giuseppe Forni, Viaggio nell'Egitto e nell'alta Nubia, 2 vols. (Milan, Italy: D. Salvi, 1859), 1:140-41.
144. Robert Jones, "The Medici Oriental Press (Rome 1584-1614) and the Impact of its Arabic Publications on Northern Europe" in The "Arabick" Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, ed. G. A. Russell (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994),
145. and Olga Pinto, "La typografia araba in Italia dal XVI al-XIX secolo," Levante 1-2 (1964): 8-16, especially 10-11 on previous collaborations of Maronite and Italian printers. Note that Napoleon acquired equipment for his short-lived Egyptian printing program from the Vatican.
146. Sabat, Tarikh al-Taba'a, 151.
147. On Morosi, see Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino (Torino, Italy: Stamperia Reale, 1820), xlii,
148. and L. E. Funaro, "Mezzi, metodie macchine: Notizie su Giuseppe Morosi," Nuncius: Annali di Storia della Scienza, fasc. 1 (1998).
149. Funaro, ibid., especially 99, 101, 110.
150. Forni, Viaggio nell'Egitto, 1:141. On a more general level, L. A. Balboni, Gl'Italiani nella civiltà egiziana del secolo XIX: Storia-biografie-monografie (Alessandria, Italy: V. Pennason, 1906), 3:377,
151. and Sabat, Tarikh al-Taba'a, 150-52.
152. Brocchi, Giornale delle osservazioni fatte ne' viaggi in Egitto, 1:172-74.
153. Dizionario Italiano e Arabo (Bolacco [Bulaq], Egypt: Stampa Reale, 1822), with contents in Arabic/ Roman type.
154. Forni, Viaggio nell'Egitto, 1:140,
155. and Silvera, "First Egyptian Student Mission," 7.
156. Olga Pinto, "Mose Castelli, Tipografo Italiano al Cairo," in A Francesco Gabrieli: Studi Orientalistici Offerti nel Sessantesimo Compleanno dai suoi Colleghi e Discepoli (Rome: Università di Roma, 1964).
157. Glass, "Die nahda und ihre Technik," 66, records somewhat later dates for Castelli.
158. Geoffrey Roper, "Faris al-Shidyaq and the Transition from Scribal to Print Culture in the Middle East," in The Book in the Islamic World: The Written Word and Communication in the Middle East, ed. G. N. Atiyeh (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995),
159. and Yusuf al-Shawiri, Al-Rihla al-'Arabiyya al-Haditha (Beirut: al-Taba'a al-'Arabiyya al-Awwali, 1998), 29-38.
160. Huda Smitshuijzen AbiFares, Arabic Typography: A Comprehensive Sourcebook (London: Saqi, 2001), 68.
161. Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq, Kitab al-Rihla al-Mawsuma bi-l-Wasita ila Ma'rifat Malita wa-Kashf al-Mukhabba' 'an Funun Awrubba (Tunis, Tunisia: N.p., 1867)
162. George Badger, An English Arabic Lexicon, in Which the Equivalents for English Words and Idiomatic Sentences Are Rendered into Literary and Colloquial Arabic (London: C. Kegan Paul, 1881)
163. and Faris el-Shidiac, A Practical Grammar of the Arabic Language: With Interlineal Reading Lessons, Dialogues and Vocabulary (London: Bernard Quaritch, 1866).
164. See also Geoffrey Roper, "George Percy Badger (1815-1888)," British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin 11 (1984): 140-45.
165. Darlow and Moule, Historical Catalogue, 2, part 1:71.
166. Mirza Abu Taleb Khan, The Travels of Mirza Abu Taleb Khan in Asia, Africa, and Europe, 2 vols. (London: R. Watts, Broxbourne, Herts and sold by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1814), 293-95.
167. This translation of Abu Talib's Ma'athir-e Talibi fi Bilad-e Afrang was published by Richard Watts. Also Katharine Smith Diehl, "Lucknow Printers, 1820-1850," in Comparative Librarianship: Essays in Honour of Professor D. N. Marshall, ed. N. N. Gidwani (Delhi, India: Vikas, 1973).
168. Rammohun Roy, Bengalee Grammar in the English Language (Calcutta, India: Unitarian Press, 1826).
169. On the English lithographer Mr. Archer in 1830s Lucknow, see Aloys Sprenger, A Catalogue of the Arabic, Persian and Hindustany Manuscripts of the Libraries of the King of Oudh (Calcutta, India: J. Thomas, 1854), vi. Note that in Iran in 1830, an unnamed Russian entrepreneur established a press in Tabriz.
170. See Golpayigani, Tarikh-e Chap va Chapkhana dar Iran, 15.
171. Ian Proudfoot, Early Malay Printed Books: A Provisional Catalogue of Materials (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Academy of Malay Studies, 1993), 2, 13-17,
172. and J. van der Putten, "Printing in Riau: Two Steps toward Modernity," Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde 153 (1997), 717-36.
173. Benjamin Peach Keasberry, A Vocabulary of the English and Malay Languages, with the Proper Orthography for Englishmen (Batavia [Jakarta], Indonesia: H. M. van Dorp, 1859).
174. Fazli wrote an account of his Afghan travels: Mehmed Fazl* Resimli Efgan Seyahati (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Ahmed Ihsan, 1909).
175. On printing and Moroccan travelers, see Muhammed Al-Saffar, Disorienting Encounters: Travels of a Moroccan Scholar in France in 1845-1846, trans. Susan Gilson Miller (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1992), 201-206.
176. Richard Clogg, "An Attempt to Revive Turkish Printing in Istanbul in 1779," International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979): 67-70.
177. Ali Behdad, "The Powerful Art of Qajar Photography: Orientalism and (Self)-Orientalizing in Nineteenth-Century Iran," Iranian Studies 34 (2001): 141-52.
178. Jean-Joseph Marcel, Oratio Dominica CL Linguis Versa, et Propriis Cujusque Linguæ Characteribus Plerumque Expressa (Paris: Typis Imperialibus, 1805).
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