Linking movement behaviour, dispersal and population processes: Is individual variation a key?

Journal of Animal Ecology

Volumn 78, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 894-906

  Hawkes, Colin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Diffusion equations; Dispersal distance distributions; Metapopulations; Negative exponential; Population heterogeneity

Indexed keywords

DENSITY DEPENDENCE; DISPERSAL; EQUATION; HERITABILITY; METAPOPULATION; MOVEMENT; PATCH USE; POPULATION DYNAMICS; POPULATION ECOLOGY; POPULATION MODELING; RANDOM WALK METHOD;

ANIMAL; ANIMAL BEHAVIOR; ECOSYSTEM; PHYSIOLOGY; POPULATION DENSITY; POPULATION DYNAMICS; POPULATION MIGRATION; REVIEW; TIME;

ANIMAL MIGRATION; ANIMALS; BEHAVIOR, ANIMAL; ECOSYSTEM; POPULATION DENSITY; POPULATION DYNAMICS; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 68149089472     PISSN: 00218790     EISSN: 13652656     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01534.x     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Andreassen, H.P., Stenseth, N.C. Ims, R.A. (2002) Dispersal behaviour and population dynamics of vertebrates. Dispersal Ecology (eds J.M. Bullock, R.E. Kenward R.S. Hails), pp. 237 256. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
2. Austin, D., Bowen, W.D. McMillan, J.I. (2004) Intraspecific variation in movement patterns: modeling individual behaviour in a large marine predator. Oikos, 105, 15 30.
3. Baguette, M. (2003) Long distance dispersal and landscape occupancy in a metapopulation of the cranberry fritillary butterfly. Ecography, 26, 153 160.
4. Baguette, M. Van Dyck, H. (2007) Landscape connectivity and animal behavior: functional grain as a key determinant for dispersal. Landscape ecology, 22, 1117 1129.
5. Baguette, M., Petit, S. Quéva, F. (2000) Population spatial structure and migration of three butterfly species in the same habitat network: consequences for conservation. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 100 108.
6. Baker, R.R. (1978) The Evolutionary Ecology of Animal Migration. Hodder & Stoughton, London.
7. Bartumeus, F., da Luz, M.G.E., Viswanathan, G.M. Catalan, J. (2005) Animal search strategies: a quantitative random walk analysis. Ecology, 86, 3078 3087.
8. Benhamou, S. (2007) How many animals really do the Lévy walk? Ecology, 88, 1962 1969.
9. Benhamou, S. (2008) How many animals really do the Lévy walk? Reply. Ecology, 89, 2351 2352.
10. Bowler, D.E. Benton, T.G. (2005) Causes and consequences of animal dispersal strategies: relating individual behaviour to spatial dynamics. Biological Reviews, 80, 205 225.
11. Boyd, I.L. (2002) The measurement of dispersal by sea birds and seals: implications for understanding their ecology. Dispersal Ecology (eds J.M. Bullock, R.E. Kenward R.S. Hails), pp. 72 88. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
12. Broadbent, S.R. Kendall, D.G. (1953) The random walk of Trichostrongylus retortaeformis. Biometrics, 9, 460 466.
13. Buechner, M. (1987) A geometric model of vertebrate dispersal: tests and implications. Ecology, 68, 310 318.
14. Bukovinszky, T., Potting, R.P.J., Clough, Y., van Lenteren, J.C. Vet, L.E.M. (2005) The role of pre- and post-alighting detection mechanisms in the responses to patch size by specialist herbivores. Oikos, 109, 435 446.
15. Casagrandi, R. Gatto, M. (2006) The intermediate dispersal principle in spatially explicit metapopulations. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 239, 22 32.
16. Chapman, D.S., Dytham, C. Oxford, G.S. (2007a) Modelling population redistribution in a leaf beetle: an evaluation of alternative dispersal functions. Journal of Animal Ecology, 76, 36 44.
17. Chapman, D.S., Dytham, C. Oxford, G.S. (2007b) Landscape and fine-scale movements of a leaf beetle: the importance of boundary behaviour. Oecologia, 154, 55 64.
18. Cizek, O. Konvicka, M. (2005) What is a patch in a dynamic metapopulation? Mobility of an endangered woodland butterfly, Euphydryas maturna. Ecography, 28, 791 800.
19. Codling, E.A., Plank, M.J. Benhamou, S. (2008) Random walk models in biology. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 5, 813 834.
20. Conradt, L., Bodsworth, E.J., Roper, T.J. Thomas, C.D. (2000). Non-random dispersal in the butterfly Maniola jurtina: implications for metapopulation models. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 267, 1505 1510.
21. Cronin, J.T., Hyland, K. Abrahamson, W.G. (2001) The pattern, rate and range of within-patch movement of a stem galling fly. Ecological Entomology, 26, 16 24.
22. Dennis, R.L H., Shreeve, T.G. Van Dyck, H. (2003) Towards a functional resource-based concept for habitat: a butterfly biology viewpoint. Oikos, 102, 417 426.
23. Dobzhansky, T. Wright, S (1943) Genetics of natural population. X. Dispersion rates in Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics, 28, 304 340.
24. Doncaster, C.P. Macdonald, D.W. (1991) Drifting territoriality in the red fox Vulpes vulpes. Journal of Animal Ecology, 60, 423 439.
25. Doncaster, C.P. Rondinini, C. Johnson, P.C.D. (2001) Field test for environmental correlates of dispersal in hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus. Journal of Animal Ecology, 70, 33 46.
26. Dumont, C.P., Himmelman, J.H. Robinson, S.M.C. (2007) Random movement pattern of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 340, 80 89.
27. Edwards, A.M. (2008) Using likelihood to test for Lévy flight search patterns and for general power-law distributions in nature. Journal of Animal Ecology, 77, 1212 1222.
28. Edwards, A.M., Phillips, R.A., Watkins, N.W., Freeman, M.P., Murphy, E.J., Afanasyev, V., Buldyrev, S.V., da Luz, M.G., Raposo, E.P., Stanley, H.E. Viswanathan, G.M. (2007) Revisiting Lévy flight search patterns of wandering albatrosses, bumblebees and deer. Nature, 449, 1044 1048.
29. Egli, D.P. Babcock, R.C. (2004) Ultrasonic tracking reveals multiple behavioural modes of snapper (Pagrus auratus) in a temperate no-take marine reserve. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 61, 1137 1143.
30. Etienne, R., Wertheim, B., Hemerik, L., Schneider, P. Powell, J. (2002) The interaction between dispersal, the Allee effect and scramble competition affects population dynamics. Ecological Modelling, 148, 153 168.
31. Fahrig, L. (2007) Non-optimal animal movement in human-altered landscapes. Functional Ecology, 21, 1003 1015.
32. Fahrig, L. Paloheimo, J.E. (1987) Interpath dispersal of the cabbage butterfly. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 65, 616 622.
33. Feeny, P.P. (1982) Ecological aspects of insect-plant relationships - round-table discussion. Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Insect-Plant Relationships (eds J.H. Visser A.K. Minks), pp. 275 283. Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
34. Fownes, S. Roland, J. (2002) Effects of meadow suitability on female behaviour in the alpine butterfly Parnassius smintheus. Ecological Entomology, 27, 457 466.
35. Fryxell, J.M., Wilmshurst, J.F., Sinclair, A.R.E., Haydon, D.T., Holt, R.D. Abrams, P.A. (2005) Landscape scale, heterogeneity, and the viability of Serengeti grazers. Ecology Letters, 8, 328 335.
36. Gautestad, A.O. Mysterud, I. (1995). The home range ghost. Oikos, 74, 195 204. (Pubitemid 3017871)
37. Greenwood, P.J. Harvey, P.H. (1982) The natal and breeding dispersal of birds. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 13, 1 21.
38. Haag, C.R., Saastamoinen, M., Marden, J.H. Hanski, I. (2005) A candidate locus for variation in dispersal rate in a butterfly metapopulation. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 272, 2449 2456.
39. Hanski, I. (1994) A practical model of metapopulation dynamics. Journal of Animal Ecology, 63, 151 162.
40. Hanski, I. (1999) Metapopulation Ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
41. Hanski, I. Heino, M. (2003) Metapopulation-level adaptation of insect host plant preference and extinction-colonization dynamics in heterogeneous landscapes. Theoretical Population Biology, 64, 281 290.
42. Hanski, K. Ovaskainen, O. (2003) Metapopulation theory for fragmented landscapes. Theoretical Population Biology, 64, 119 127.
43. Hanski, I., Alho, J. Moilanen, A. (2000) Estimating the parameters of survival and migration of individuals in metapopulations. Ecology, 81, 239 251.
44. Hanski, I., Breuker, C.J., Schops, K., Setchfield, R. Nieminen, M. (2002) Population history and life history influence the migration rate of female Glanville fritillary butterflies. Oikos, 98, 87 97.
45. Hanski, I., Erälahti, C., Kankare, M., Ovaskainen, O. Sirén, H. (2004) Variation in migration rate among individuals maintained by landscape structure. Ecology Letters, 7, 958 966.
46. Hanski, I., Saastamoinen, M. Ovaskainen, O. (2006) Dispersal-related life-history trade-offs in a butterfly metapopulation. Journal of Animal Ecology, 75, 91 100.
47. Hapca, S., Crawford, J.W Young, I.M. (2009) Anomalous diffusion of heterogeneous populations characterized by normal diffusion at the individual level. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 6, 111 122.
48. Hawkes, C. (1972) The estimation of the dispersal rate of the adult cabbage root fly (Erioischia brassicae (Bouché)) in the presence of a brassica crop. Journal of Applied Ecology, 9, 617 632.
49. Hawkes, C. (1974) Dispersal of cabbage root fly (Erioischia brassicae (Bouché)) in relation to a brassica crop. Journal of Applied Ecology, 11, 83 93.
50. Hawkes, C. (1975) Physiological condition of adult cabbage root fly (Erioischia brassicae (Bouché)) attracted to host-plants. Journal of Applied Ecology, 12, 497 506.
51. Hawkes, C. Coaker, T.H. (1979). Factors affecting the behavioural responses of the adult cabbage root fly, Delia brassicae, to host-plant odours. Entomologia experimentalis et applicata, 25, 47 58.
52. Hawkes, C., Patton, S. Coaker, T.H. (1978). Mechanisms of host plant finding in adult cabbage root fly, Delia brassicae. Entomologia experimentalis et applicata, 24, 219 227.
53. Hawkes, C., Kowalski, R. Brindle, G.L. (1987). An alternative to migration in agricultural insects? Functional Ecology, 1, 165 167.
54. Haydon, D.T., Morales, J.M., Yott, A. Jenkins, D.A., Rosatte, R. Fryxell, J.M. (2008) Socially informed random walks: incorporating group dynamics into models of population spread and growth. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 275, 1101 1109.
55. Hein, S., Gombert, J., Hovestadt, T. Poethke, H. (2003) Movement patterns of the bush cricket Platycleis albopunctata in different types of habitat: matrix is not always matrix. Ecological Entomology, 28, 432 438.
56. Heinz, S.K., Conradt, L., Wissel, C. Frank, K. (2005) Dispersal behaviour in fragmented landscapes: deriving a practical formula for patch accessibility. Landscape Ecology, 20, 83 99.
57. Heinz, S.K., Wissel, C. Frank, K. (2006). The viability of metapopulations: individual dispersal behaviour matters. Landscape Ecology, 21, 77 89.
58. Hiebeler, D. (2004) Competition between near and far dispersers in spatially structured habitats. Theoretical Population Biology, 66, 205 218.
59. Hill, J.K., Thomas, C.D. Lewis, O.T. (1996) Effects of habitat patch size and isolation on dispersal by Hesperia comma butterflies: implications for metapopulation structure. Journal of Animal Ecology, 65, 725 735.
60. Holmes, E.E. (1993) Are diffusion models too simple? A comparison with telegraph models of invasion. American Naturalist, 142, 779 795.
61. Hughes, R.D. (1963) Population dynamics of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae (L.). Journal of Animal Ecology, 32, 393 424.
62. Inoue, T. (1978) A new regression method for analyzing animal movement patterns. Researches on Population Ecology, 20, 141 163.
63. Isaak, D.J., Thurow, R.F. Rieman, B.E. Dunham, J.B. (2007) Chinook salmon use of spawning patches: relative roles of habitat quality, size and connectivity. Ecological Applications, 17, 352 364.
64. Ito, Y. Miyashita, K. (1965) Studies on the dispersal of leaf- and planthoppers. III. An examination of the distance-dispersal rate curves. Japanese Journal of Ecology, 15, 85 89.
65. Johnson, C.G. (1969) Migration and Dispersal of Insects by Flight. Methuen, London.
66. Johnson, C.J., Parker, K.L., Heard, D.C. Gillingham, M.P. (2002) Movement parameters of ungulates and scalespecific responses to the environment. Journal of Animal Ecology, 71, 225 235.
67. Johnson, C.J., Parker, K.L., Heard, D.C. Gillingham, M.P. (2006) Unrealistic animal movement rates as behavioural bouts: a reply. Journal of Animal Ecology, 75, 303 308.
68. Johst, K., Brandl, R. Eber, S. (2002) Metapopulation persistence in dynamic landscapes: the role of dispersal distance. Oikos, 98, 263 270.
69. Jones, R.E. (1977) Movement patterns and egg distribution in cabbage butterflies. Journal of Animal Ecology, 46, 195 212.
70. Jones, R.E., Gilbert, N., Guppy, M. Nealis, V. (1980) Long-distance movement of Pieris rapae. Journal of Animal Ecology, 49, 629 642.
71. Kareiva, P. (1983) Local movement in herbivorous insects: applying a passive diffusion model to mark-recapture field experiments. Oecologia, 57, 322 327.
72. Kareiva, P.M. Shigesada, N. (1983) Analysing insect movement as a correlated random walk. Oecologia, 56, 234 238.
73. Kenward, R.E., Walls, S.S. Hodder, K.H. (2001) Life path analysis: scaling indicates priming effects of social and habitat factors on dispersal distances. Journal of Animal Ecology, 70, 1 13.
74. Keyghobadi, N., Roland, J., Matter, S.F. Strobeck, C. (2005) Among- and within-patch components of genetic diversity respond at different rates to habitat fragmentation: an empirical demonstration. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 272, 553 560.
75. Kot, M., Lewis, M.A. van den Driessche, P. (1996) Dispersal data and the spread of invading organisms. Ecology, 77, 2027 2042.
76. Kuras, T., Benes, J., Fric, Z. Konvicka, M. (2003) Dispersal patterns of endemic alpine butterflies with contrasting population structures: Erebia epiphron and E. sudetica. Population Ecology, 45, 115 123.
77. Lande, R. (1988) Demographic models of the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina). Oecologia, 75, 601 607.
78. Lindstrom, T., Hakansson, N., Westerberg, L. Wennergren, U. (2008) Splitting the tail of the displacement kernel shows the unimportance of kurtosis. Ecology, 89, 1784 1790.
79. Matter, S.F. (2006) Changes in landscape structure decrease mortality during migration. Oecologia, 150, 8 16.
80. Matthiopoulos, J., McConnel, B., Duck, C. Fedak, M. (2004) Using satellite telemetry and aerial counts to estimate space use by grey seals around the British Isles. Journal of Applied Ecology, 41, 476 491.
81. Mennechez, G., Petit, S., Schtickzelle, N. Baguette, M. (2004) Modelling mortality and dispersal: consequences of parameter generalisation on metapopulation dynamics. Oikos, 106, 243 252.
82. Moilanen, A. (2004) SPOMSIM: software for stochastic patch occupancy models of metapopulation dynamics. Ecological Modelling, 179, 533 550.
83. Moorcroft, P.R. Lewis, M.A. (2006) Mechanistic Home Range Analysis. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
84. Moorcroft, P.R., Lewis, M.A. Crabtree, R.L. (2006) Mechanistic home range models capture spatial patterns and dynamics of coyote territories in Yellowstone. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 273, 1651 1659.
85. Morales, J.M. (2002) Behavior at habitat boundaries can produce leptokurtic movement distributions. American Naturalist, 160, 531 538.
86. Morales, J.M., Haydon, D.T., Frair, J., Holsinger, K.E. Fryxell, J.M. (2004) Extracting more out of relocation data: building movement models as mixtures of random walks. Ecology, 85, 2436 2445.
87. Murrell, D.J., Travis, J.M.J. Dytham, C. (2002) The evolution of dispersal distance in spatially-structured populations. Oikos, 97, 229 236.
88. Nams, V.O. (2006) Animal movement rates as behavioural bouts. Journal of Animal Ecology, 75, 298 302.
89. Okubo, A. (1980) Diffusion and Ecological Problems: Mathematical Models. Springer, New York.
90. Okubo, A. Levin, S.A. (2001) Diffusion and Ecological Problems: Modern Perspectives. Springer, New York.
91. Ovaskainen, O. (2004) Habitat-specific movement parameters estimated using mark-recapture data and a diffusion model. Ecology, 85, 242 257.
92. Ovaskainen, O. Hanski, I. (2003) How much does an individual habitat fragment contribute to metapopulation dynamics and persistence? Theoretical Population Biology, 64, 481 495.
93. Ozgul, A., Armitage, K.B., Blumstein, D.T., Vanvuren, D.H. Oli, M.K. (2006) Effects of patch quality and network structure on patch occupancy dynamics of a yellow-bellied marmot metapopulation. Journal of Animal Ecology, 75, 191 202.
94. Petit, S., Moilanen, A., Hanski, I. Baguette, M. (2001) Metapopulation dynamics of the bog fritillary butterfly: movements between habitat patches, Oikos, 92, 491 500.
95. Petty, J.D. Grossman, G.D. (2004) Restricted movement by mottled sculpin (pisces: cottidae) in a southern Appalachian stream. Freshwater Biology, 49, 631 645.
96. Pinaud, D. Weimerskirch, H. (2007) At-sea distribution and scale-dependent foraging behaviour of petrels and albatrosses: a comparative study. Journal of Animal Ecology, 76, 9 19.
97. Reeve, J.D., Cronin, J.T. Haynes, K.J. (2008) Diffusion models for animals in complex landscapes: incorporating heterogeneity among substrates, individuals and edge behaviours. Journal of Animal Ecology, 77, 898 904.
98. Reeve, N.J. (1994) Hedgehogs. Poyser, London.
99. Reynolds, A. (2008) How many animals really do the Lévy walk? Comment. Ecology, 89, 2347 2351.
100. Richardson, B.J., Hayes, R.A., Wheeler, S.H. Yardin, M.R. (2002) Social structures, genetic structures and dispersal strategies in Australian rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology, 51, 113 121.
101. Rodríguez, M.A. (2002) Restricted movement in stream fish: the paradigm is incomplete, not lost. Ecology, 83, 1 13.
102. Roff, D.A. Fairbairn, D.J. (2001) The genetic basis of dispersal and migration, and its consequences for the evolution of correlated traits. Dispersal (eds J. Clobert, E. Danchin, A.A. Dhondt J.D. Nichols), pp. 191 202. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
103. Rogers, D. (1977) Study of a natural population of the Glossina fuscipes fuscipes Newstead and a model of fly movement. Journal of Animal Ecology, 46, 309 330.
104. Ronce, O., Perret, F. Olivieri, I. (2000) Landscape dynamics and evolution of coloniser syndromes: interactions between reproductive effort and dispersal in a metapopulation. Evolutionary Ecology, 14, 233 260.
105. Root, R.B. Kareiva, P.M. (1984) The search for resources by cabbage butterflies (Pieris rapae): ecological consequences and adaptive significance of Markovian movements in a patchy environment. Ecology, 65, 147 165.
106. Roslin, T. (2000) Dung beetle movements at two spatial scales. Oikos, 91, 323 335.
107. Schtickzelle, N. Baguette, M (2003) Behavioural responses to habitat patch boundaries restrict dispersal and generate emigration-patch area relationships in fragmented landscapes. Journal of Animal Ecology, 72, 533 545.
108. Schtickzelle, N., Joiris, A., Van Dyck, H. Baguette, M. (2007) Quantitative analysis of changes in movement behaviour within and outside habitat in a specialist butterfly. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 7, 1 15.
109. Shigesada, N. Kawasaki, K. (2002) Invasion and the range expansion of species: effects of long-distance dispersal. Dispersal Ecology (eds J.M. Bullock, R.E. Kenward R.S. Hails), pp. 350 373. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
110. Sims, D.W., Righton, D. Pitchford, J.W. (2007) Minimizing errors in identifying Lévy flight behaviour of organisms. Journal of Animal Ecology, 76, 222 229.
111. Skalski, G.T. Gilliam, J.F. (2000) Modeling diffusive spread in a heterogeneous population: a movement study with stream fish. Ecology, 81, 1685 1700.
112. Skalski, G.T. Gilliam, J.F. (2003) A diffusion-based theory of organism dispersal in heterogeneous populations. American Naturalist, 161, 441 458.
113. Skellam, J.G. (1951a) Random dispersal in theoretical populations. Biometrika, 38, 196 218.
114. Skellam, J.G. (1951b) Gene dispersion in heterogeneous populations. Heredity, 5, 433 435.
115. South, A.B., Rushton, S.P., Kenward, R.E. Macdonal, D.W. (2002) Modelling vertebrate dispersal and demography in real landscapes: how does uncertainty regarding dispersal behaviour influence predictions of spatial dynamics? Dispersal Ecology (eds J.M. Bullock, R.E. Kenward R.S. Hails pp. 327 349. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
116. Stamps, J.A., Krishnan, V.V. Reid, M.L. (2005) Search costs and habitat selection by dispersers. Ecology, 86, 510 518.
117. Thomas, C.D. Hanski, I. (1997) Butterfly metapopulations. Metapopulation Biology: Ecology, Genetics and Evolution (eds I. Hanski M. Gilpin), pp. 359 386. Elsevier. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
118. Travis, J.M.J. (2003) Neighbourhood size, dispersal distance and the complex dynamics of the spatial Ricker model. Population Ecology, 45, 227 237.
119. Turchin, P.B. (1998) Quantitative Analysis of Movement: Measuring and Modeling Population Redistribution in Animals and Plants. Sinauer & Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
120. Turchin, P.B. (2003) Complex Population Dynamics: A Theoretical/Empirical Synthesis. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
121. Van Dyck, H. Baguette, M. (2005) Dispersal behaviour in fragmented landscapes: routine or special movements? Basic and Applied Ecology, 6, 535 545.
122. Viswanathan, G.M., Buldyrev, S.V., Havlin, S., da Luz, M.G.E., Raposo, E.P. Stanley, H.E. (1999) Optimizing the success of random searches. Nature, 401, 911 914.
123. Wahlberg, N., Klemetti, T., Selonen, V. Hanski, I. (2002) Metapopulation structure and movements in five species of checkerspot butterflies. Oecologia, 130, 33 43.
124. Walls, S.S. Kenward, R.E. (1998) Movements of radio tagged buzzards Buteo buteo in early life. Ibis, 140, 561 568.
125. Wang, R., Wang, Y., Chen, J., Lei, G. Xu, R. (2004) Contrasting movement patterns in two species of chequerspot butterflies, Euphydryas aurinia and Melitaea phoebe, in the same patch network. Ecological Entomology, 29, 367 374.
126. Wein, J.A. (2001) The landscape context of dispersal. Dispersal (eds J. Clobert, E. Danchin, A.A. Dhondt J.D. Nichols), pp. 341 357. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
127. Wilson, R.J. Thomas, C.D. (2002) Dispersal and the spatial dynamics of butterfly populations. Dispersal Ecology (eds J.M. Bullock, R.E. Kenward R.S. Hails), pp. 257 278. Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
128. Winkler, D.W., Wrege, P.H., Allen, P.E., Kast, T.L. Senasac, P. (2005) The natal dispersal of tree swallows in a continuous mainland environment. Journal of Animal Ecology, 74, 1080 1090.
129. Yamamura, K. (2002) Dispersal distance of heterogeneous populations. Population Ecology, 44, 93 101.
130. Yamamura, K. (2004) Dispersal distance of corn pollen under fluctuating diffusion coefficient. Population Ecology, 46, 87 101.
131. Yamamura, K., Moriya, S. Tanaka, K. (2003) Discrete random walk model to interpret the dispersal parameters of organisms. Ecological Modelling, 161, 151 157.
132. Yamamura, K., Moriya, S., Tanaka, K. Shimizu, T. (2007) Estimation of the potential speed of range expansion of an introduced species: characteristics and applicability of the gamma model. Population Ecology, 49, 51 62.
133. Zhang, X., Johnson, S.N., Crawford, J.W., Gregory, P.J. Young, I.M. (2007) A general random walk model for the leptokurtic distribution of organism movement: Theory and application. Ecological Modelling, 200, 79 88.
134. Zollner, P.A. Lima, S.L. (1999) Search strategies for landscape-level interpatch movements. Ecology, 80, 1019 1030.