Media, celebrities, and fans: An examination of adolescents' media usage and involvement with entertainment celebrities

Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly

Volumn 86, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 23-44

  Chia, Stella C ^a   Poo, Yip Ling ^b  

^a NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY   (Singapore)

^b Singapore Department of Statistics   (Singapore)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENCE; MASS MEDIA; PUBLIC ATTITUDE;

ASIA; EURASIA; SINGAPORE [SOUTHEAST ASIA]; SOUTHEAST ASIA;

EID: 67651224848     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769900908600103     Document Type: Article

References (136)

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14. Brown and Basil, "Media Celebrities and Public Health";
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19. Michael D. Basil and William J. Brown, "Marketing AIDS Prevention: The Differential Impact Hypothesis Versus Identification Effects", Journal of Consumer Psychology 6 (4, 1997): 389-411.
20. Boon and Lomore, "Admirer-Celebrity Relationships."
21. Leon Festinger, "A Theory of Social Comparison Processes", Human Relations 7 (2, 1954): 117-40;
22. Renee A. Botta, "Television Images and Adolescent Girls' Body Image Disturbance", Journal of Communication 49 (2, 1999): 22-41;
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24. Mei Yan Ng, "Have Idol, Will Travel", The Straits Times, March 20, 2005, sec. H, p. 1;
25. W. Z. Wen, "Female Students Spent Twenty Dollars in Hiring Taxi to Go After Celebrities", Shin Mm Daily News, January 29, 2007, p. 4;
26. Stephanie Yap, "Swooning Over Mr. Tears", The Straits Times, September 4, 2006, sec. H, p. 2.
27. Herbert E. Krugman, "The Measurement of Advertising Involvement", Public Opinion Quarterly 30 (4, 1967): 583-96;
28. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (NY: McGraw Hill, 1964);
29. Everett M. Rogers, "The Extensions of Men: The Correspondence of Marshall McLuhan and Edward T. Hall", Mass Communication and Society 3 (1, 2000): 117-35.
30. Brown, Basil, and Bocarnea, "Social Influence of an International Celebrity."
31. Alan M. Rubin and Elizabeth M. Perse, "Audience Activity and Soap Opera Involvement: A Uses and Gratification Investigation", Human Communication Research 14 (2, 1987): 246-68.
32. Brown, Basil, and Bocarnea, "Social Influence of an International Celebrity";
33. William J. Brown, Michael D. Basil, and Mihai C. Bocarnea, "The Influence of Famous Athletes on Health Beliefs and Practices: Mark McGwire, Child Abuse Prevention, and Androstenedione", Journal of Health Communication 8 (1, 2003): 41-57.
34. Donald Horton and R. Richard Wohl, "Mass Communication and Para-Social Interaction: Observations on Intimacy at a Distance", Psychiatry 19 (2, 1956): 215-29;
35. Mark Levy, "Watching Television News as Parasocial Interaction", Journal of Broadcasting 23 (1, 1979): 69-80.
36. Kelman, "Process of Opinion Change";
37. Basil, "Identification as Mediator"; Basil and Brown, "Marketing AIDS Prevention. "
38. David C. Giles, "Parasocial Interaction: A Review of the Literature and a Model for Future Research", Media Psychology 4 (3, 2002): 279-305;
39. Horton and Wohl, "Mass Communication and Para-Social Interaction"; Alan M. Rubin, Elizabeth M. Perse, and Robert A. Powell, "Loneliness, Parasocial Interaction, and Television News Viewing", Human Communication Research 12 (2, 1985): 155-80.
40. Lynn E. McCutcheon, Rense Lange, and James Houran, " Conceptualization and Measurement of Celebrity Worship", British Journal of Psychology 93 (1, 2002): 67-87.
41. John Maltby, James Houran, Rense Lange, Diane Ashe, and Lynn E. McCutcheon, "Thou Shalt Worship No Other Gods-Unless They are Celebrities: The Relationship Between Celebrity Worship and Religious Orientation", Personality and Individual Difference 32 (May 2002) : 1157-72.
42. Peter Vorderer, Francis F. Steen, and Elaine Chan, "Motivation" , in Psychology of Entertainment, ed. Jennings Bryant and Peter Vorderer (NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006), 3-18.
43. Gayle S. Stever, "The Celebrity Appeal Questionnaire", Psychology Reports 68 (1, 1991): 859-66.
44. Daniel L. Wann, "Preliminary Validation of the Sport Fan Motivation Scale", Journal of Sports and Social Issues 19 (4, 1995): 377-96.
45. See Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and Melvin L. DeFleur, "A Dependency Model of Mass-Media Effects", Communication Research 3 (1, 1976): 3-21.
46. August E. Grant, K. Kendall Guthrie, and Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach, "Television Shopping", Communication Research 18 (6, 1991): 773-98;
47. also see Vorderer, Steen, and Chan, "Motivation. "
48. Park E. Dietz, Daryl B. Matthews, Cindy Van Duyne, Daniel A. Martell, Charles D. H. Parry, Tracy Stewart, Janet Warren, and J. Douglas Crowder, "Threatening and Otherwise Inappropriate Letters to Hollywood Celebrities", Journal of Forensic Sciences 36 (January 1991) : 185-209;
49. Giles, "Parasocial Interaction. "
50. Horton and Wohl, "Mass Communication and Para-Social Interaction"; Levy, "Watching Television News."
51. Brown and Basil, "Media Celebrities and Public Health"; Brown, Basil, and Bocarnea, "Social Influence of an International Celebrity"; Brown, Basil, and Bocarnea, "The Influence of Famous Athletes." For detailed definition of identification, see Kenneth Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
52. Lynn E. McCutcheon, Diane Ashe, James Houran, and John Maltby, "A Cognitive Profile of Individuals Who Tend to Worship Celebrities", The Journal of Psychology 137 (4, 2003): 309-22.
53. John Maltby, Liza Day, Lynn E. McCutcheon, James Houran, and Diane Ashe, "Extreme Celebrity Worship, Fantasy Proneness and Dissociation: Developing the Measurement and Understanding of Celebrity Worship Within a Clinical Personality Context", Personality and Individual Differences 40 (2, 2006): 273-83;
54. Paul S. F. Yip, K. W. Fu, Kris C. T. Yang, Brian Y. T. Ip, Cecilia L. W Chan, Eric Y. H. Chen, Dominic T. S. Lee, Frances Y. W. Law, and Keith Hawton, "The Effects of a Celebrity Suicide on Suicide Rates in Hong Kong", Journal of Affective Disorders 93 (1-3, 2006) : 245-52.
55. Lynn E. McCutcheon, Vann B. Scott, Mara S. Aruguete, and Jennifer Parker, "Exploring the Link between Attachment and the Inclination to Obsess about or Stalk Celebrities", North American Journal of Psychology 8 (2, 2006): 289-300.
56. McCutcheon, Lange, and Houran, "Conceptualization and Measurement of Celebrity Worship. "
57. Rasch scaling produces a probabilistic item hierarchy. The behaviors described by the "high" items do not replace the behaviors described by the "low" items. See McCutcheon, Lange, and Houran, "Conceptualization and Measurement of Celebrity Worship. "
58. McCutcheon, Lange, and Houran, "Conceptualization and Measurement of Celebrity Worship. "
59. Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-events in America.
60. Horton and Wohl, "Mass Communication and Para-social Interaction. "
61. Levy, "Watching Television News."
62. Neil M. Alperstein, "Imaginary Social Relationships with Celebrities Appearing in Television Ccommercials", Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 35 (1, 1991): 43-58;
63. Philip J. Auter, "TV that Talks Back: An Experimental Validation of a Parasocial Interaction Scale", Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 36 (2, 1992): 173-81;
64. William J. Brown and Michael J. Cody, "Effects of a Prosocial Television Soap Opera in Promoting Women's Status", Human Communication Research 18 (1, 1991): 114-42;
65. Rubin, Perse, and Powell, "Loneliness, Parasocial Interaction, and Local Television Viewing"; Corinne L. Shefner-Rogers, Everett M. Rogers, and Arvind Singhal, "Parasocial Interaction with the Television Soap Operas 'Simplemente Maria' and 'Oshin, '" Keio Communication Review 20 (1, 1998): 3-18;
66. Edward J. Whetmore and Alfred P. Kielwasser, "The Soap Opera Audience Speaks: A Preliminary Report", The Journal of American Culture 6 (3, 1983): 110-16.
67. Basil and Brown, "Marketing AIDS Prevention"; William J. Brown, James J. Duane, and Benson P. Fraser, "Media Coverage and Public Opinion of the O. J. Simpson Trial: Implications for the Criminal Justice System", Communication Law and Policy 2 (2, 1997): 261-87;
68. Brown and Basil, "Media Celebrities and Public Health"; Fraser and Brown, "Media, Celebrities, and Social Influence"; Jib Fowles, Star Struck: Celebrity Performers and the American Public (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992).
69. Carolyn Adams-Price and Alice L. Greene, "Secondary Attachments and Self Concept during Adolescence", Sex Roles 22 (3/4, 1990) : 187-98;
70. Sheung-Tak Chang, "Psychological Determinants of Idolatry in Adolescents", Adolescence 32 (127, 1997): 687-92;
71. Alice L. Greene and Carolyn Adams-Price, "Adolescents' Secondary Attachments to Celebrity Figures", Sex Roles 23 (7/8, 1990) : 335-47;
72. Boon and Lomore, "Admirer-Celebrity Relationships"; John Maltby, Liz Day, Lynn E. McCutcheon, Matthew M. Martin, and Jacob L. Cayanus, "Celebrity Worship, Cognitive Flexibility and Social Complexity", Personality and Individual Differences 37 (7, 2004): 1475-82;
73. Raviv et al., "Adolescent Idolization of Pop Singers."
74. Kelman, "Process of Opinion Change."
75. For example, Elvis Presley impersonators seek to "be like" Elvis, and Jennifer Lopez fans say that they want to "be like J-Lo." See Basil, "Identification as Mediator";
76. Basil and Brown, "Marketing AIDS Prevention";
77. Brown, Basil, and Bocarnea, "Social Influence of an International Celebrity"; Brown, Basil, and Bocarnea, "The Influence of Famous Athletes."
78. Boon and Lomore, "Admirer-Celebrity Relationships."
79. Boon and Lomore, "Admirer-Celebrity Relationships."
80. See John L. Caughey, "Mind Games: Imaginary Social Relationships in American Sport", in Meaningful Play, Playful Meaning, ed. Gary A. Fine (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, 1985), 19-33;
81. Caughey, "Gina as Steven"; Boon and Lomore, "Admirer-Celebrity Relationships."
82. Boon and Lomore, "Admirer-Celebrity Relationships."
83. Chan and Zhang, "Living in a Celebrity-Mediated Social World."
84. Festinger, "A Theory of Social Comparison Processes."
85. Botta, "Television Images and Adolescent Girls' Body Image Disturbance."
86. Phoebe Cramer, "Identification and its Relation to Identity Development", Journal of Personality 69 (5, 2001): 667-88.
87. Botta, "Television Images and Adolescent Girls' Body Image Disturbance";
88. George R. Goethals, "Social Comparison Theory: Psychology from the Lost and Found", Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 12 (3, 1986): 261-78.
89. Festinger, "A Theory of Social Comparison Processes."
90. For a review, see Ed Diener, "Subjective Well-being", Psychological Bulletin 95 (3, 1984): 542-75;
91. Joanna V. Wood, "Theory and Research Concerning Social Comparisons of Personal Attributes", Psychological Bulletin 106 (2, 1989): 231-48.
92. Marsha L. Richins, "Social Comparison and the Idealized Images of Advertising", Journal of Consumer Research 18 (1, 1991): 71-83.
93. John Maltby, Lynn E. McCutcheon, Diane D. Ashe, and James Houran, "The Self-Reported Psychological Well-being of Celebrity Worshippers", North American Journal of Psychology 3 (3, 2001): 441-52;
94. John Maltby, David C. Giles, Louise Barber, and Lynn E. McCutcheon, "Intense-Personal Celebrity Worship and Body Image: Evidence of a Link Among Female Adolescents", British Journal of Health Psychology 10 (1, 2005): 17-32.
95. Botta, "Television Images and Adolescent Girls' Body Image Disturbance."
96. Leslie J. Heinberg and Kevin J. Thompson, "Social Comparison: Gender, Target Importance Ratings and Relation to Body Image Disturbance", Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 7 (4, 1995): 335-44.
97. To ensure students' privacy and confidentiality, respondents were asked not to put their names or other identifying information anywhere in the questionnaire. Although some teachers were present during the survey (some schools requested teachers to be present during the survey), the researchers and research assistants were in charge of collecting the questionnaires directly from the respondents. The teachers did not get to see students' responses. We also reassured the respondents that their responses would be kept confidential.
98. The institutional review board for research projects involving adolescents is set by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Singapore. After obtaining IRB approval from the MOE, the researchers randomly selected 27 (out of 165) secondary schools and invited the schools to participate in the survey. Five schools agreed to participate in the survey. The schools chose the survey time and the classes available for the survey. Prior to the survey, the schools informed the students in the selected classes and the students' parents about the survey. Students who were not willing to participate in the survey or who were denied parental permission to participate were dismissed from the class or attended other activities during the survey time.
99. All secondary school students in Singapore are categorized into different academic streams. Overall, students who study in the Special Stream or the Express Stream have higher academic scores than students who study in the Normal Stream.
100. About 51% of the respondents (n = 315) reported that their idols were pop singers, 16% (n = 96) reported that their idols were pop bands, 14% (n = 84) reported TV actors, 7% (n = 41) reported movie actors, and the other respondents (n = 85) reported fashion models, radio DJs, or TV hosts. We did not include sport celebrities because adolescents are likely to admire sports idols and entertainment idols for different reasons and because only six respondents indicated sports celebrities as their favorite idols.
101. We did not include two items that were in the original scale as the item loadings were less than.50. These two items were (1) "One of the main reasons I maintain an interest in my favorite celebrity is that doing so gives me a temporary escape from life's problems", and (2) "I often feel compelled to learn the personal habits of my favorite celebrity." We also left out one item that loaded on entertainment-social factor in the original scale because it was found to load on the intense-personal factor in the present study. This item was: "Friends and I like to discuss what my favorite celebrity has done."
102. Sample items are: "I'd rather spend time buying things than doing almost anything else", "I would be happier if I had more money to buy more things for myself", "I like to buy things my friends have", "When I grow up, the more money I have, the happier I am";
103. see Marvin E. Goldberg, Gerald J. Gorn, Laura A. Peracchio, and Gary Bamossy, "Understanding Materialism Among Youth", Journal of Consumer Psychology 13 (3, 2003): 278-88.
104. Sample questions are: "I feel I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others", "I feel I have a number of good qualities", "All in all, I am inclined to feel I am a failure";
105. see Morris Rosenberg, Conceiving the Self (NY: Basic Books, 1979).
106. Sample questions are: "In most ways, my life is close to my ideal", "The conditions of my life are excellent", "I am satisfied with my life";
107. see Ed Diener, Robert A. Emmons, Randy J. Larsen, and Sharon Griffin, "The Satisfaction with Life Scale", Journal of Personality Assessment 49 (February 1985) : 71-5.
108. Karl G. Jöreskog and Dag Sörbom, LISREL 8: User's Reference Guide (Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International, 1996).
109. We included household income in preliminary analyses but excluded it from the formal analyses as household income did not appear to be associated with any of the other variables in the hypothetical model. A full correlation matrix of the exogenous and the endogenous variables for this analysis can be obtained from the first author.
110. Rex B. Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (NY: Guilford Press, 1998).
111. See Stella C. Chia, "How Peers Mediate Media Influence on Adolescents' Sexual Attitudes and Sexual Behavior", Journal of Communication 56 (3, 2006): 585-606.
112. See Richard P. Bagozzi and Todd F. Heatherton, "A General Approach to Representing Multifaceted Personality Constructs: Application to State Self-esteem", Structural Equation Modeling 1 (1, 1994): 35-67;
113. Richard P. Bagozzi and Jeffery R. Edwards, "A General Approach for Representing Constructs in Organizational Research", Organizational Research Methods 1 (1, 1998): 45-87;
114. Deborah Bandalos, "The Effects of Item Parceling on Goodness-of-Fit and Parameter Estimate Bias in Structural Equation Modeling", Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 9 (January 2002) : 78-102;
115. Deborah L. Bandalos and Sara J. Finney, "Item Parceling Issues in Structural Equation Modeling", in New Developments and Techniques in Structural Equation Modeling, ed. George. A. Marcoulides and Randell E. Schumacker (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001), 269-96;
116. Richard L. Gorsuch, Factor Analysis (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1983). In accordance with standard representation, we have drawn observed variables and all item parcels as rectangles and latent variables as ovals. We set the first listed indicator/item parcel as a reference variable for each latent term.
117. Chi-square statistics are likely to be inflated by big sample size. A ratio of Chi-square statistics to degree of freedom of less than three is considered a good model fit. In this case, the ratio is 1.63, which indicates a good model fit. For details, see Kline, Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 128.
118. The mediating effects of involvement with celebrities were further confirmed when we found (1) exposure to celebrity-related media significantly accounted for involvement with celebrities, (2) involvement with celebrities accounted for materialism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction, and (3) the significant correlation coefficients between exposure to celebrity-related media and materialism and life satisfaction became nonsignificant in the structural models (see Figure 2). These three mediating criteria were proposed by Reuben M. Baron and David A. Kenny, "The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (6, 1986): 1173-82.
119. We performed bias-corrected bootstrapping with 1,000 bootstrapping samples. Results show that the mediated effect size is .03, and the 95% confidence interval (.006, .060) provides a significant support for the mediated effects.
120. Results of bias-corrected bootstrapping with 1,000 bootstrapping samples showed that the three-path mediated effect size is.01, and the 95% confidence interval (.003, .026) provides support for the mediated effects. The results, however, failed to support an indirect media effect that was mediated by another two variables acting in turn, borderlinepathological tendencies and self-celebrity comparison.
121. Results of bias-corrected bootstrapping with 1,000 bootstrapping samples showed that the three-path mediated effect size is.04, and the 95% confidence interval (.009, .077) provides support for the mediated effects. However, we did not find support for an indirect media effect that was mediated by two variables acting in turn, borderline-pathological tendencies and self-celebrity comparison. We also did not find support for an indirect media effect that was mediated by another two variables acting in turn, entertainment-social values and self-celebrity comparison.
122. Results of bias-corrected bootstrapping with 1,000 bootstrapping samples, however, showed that the mediated effect size is -.03, and the 95% confidence interval (-.051,.001) failed to provide support for the mediated effects.
123. Results of bias-corrected bootstrapping with 1,000 bootstrapping samples showed that the mediated effect size is.05, and the 95% confidence interval (.020, .083) provides support for the mediated effects.
124. Results of bias-corrected bootstrapping with 1,000 bootstrapping samples showed that the mediated effect size is.07, and the 95% confidence interval (.010, .131) provides support for the mediated effects.
125. Results of bias-corrected bootstrapping with 1,000 bootstrapping samples showed that the mediated effect size is.15, and the 95% confidence interval (.072, .222) provides support for the mediated effects. However, the results failed to support the same indirect effect of borderline-pathological tendencies on adolescents' life satisfaction.
126. Results of bias-corrected bootstrapping with 1,000 bootstrapping samples showed that the mediated effect size is.07, and the 95% confidence interval (.025, .107) provides support for the mediated effects. However, the results failed to support the same indirect effect of entertainment-social values on adolescents' life satisfaction.
127. For a review, see Boon and Lomore, "Admirer-Celebrity Relationships."
128. Rubin, Perse, and Powell, "Loneliness, Parasocial Interaction, and Television News Viewing";
129. Rubin and Perse, "Audience Activity and Soap Opera Involvement."
130. Yuna Engle and Tim Kasser, "Why Do Adolescent Girls Idolize Male Celebrities?" Journal of Adolescent Research 20 (2, 2005): 263-83.
131. Caughey, "Mind Games."
132. Quentin J. Schultze, Roy M. Anker, James C. Bratt, William D. Romanowski, John W. Worst, and Lambert Zuidervaart, Dancing in the Dark: Youth, Popular Culture, and the Electronic Media (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1991).
133. Boon and Lomore, "Admirer-Celebrity Relationships"; Xiao Dong Yue and Chau-Kit Cheung, "Selection of Favorite Idols and Models Among Chinese Young People: A Comparative Study in Hong Kong and Nanjing", International Journal of Behavioral Development 24 (1, 2000): 91-98.
134. Examples include Audrey Hepburn, who served as UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, and Angelina Jolie, who is the Goodwill Ambassador for the UN Refugee Agency.
135. Adams-Price and Greene, "Secondary Attachments and Self Concept During Adolescence"; Greene and Adams-Price, "Adolescents' Secondary Attachments to Celebrity Figures"; Engle and Kasser, "Why Do Adolescent Girls Idolize Male Celebrities?"
136. See also Rachel Karniol, "Adolescent Females' Idolization of Male Media Stars as a Transition into Sexuality", Sex Roles 44 (1/2, 2001) : 61-77.