Minimally invasive techniques in management of hepatic neuroendocrine metastatic disease

American Journal of Clinical Oncology: Cancer Clinical Trials

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 200-215

  Liu, David M ^a,b,l   Kennedy, Andrew ^c   Turner, David ^d   Rose, Steven C ^e   Kee, Stephen T ^b   Whiting, Samuel ^f   Murthy, Ravi ^g   Nutting, Charles ^h   Heran, Manraj ^a   Lewandowski, Robert ⁱ   Knight, Jesse ^j   Gulec, Seza ^k   Salem, Riad ⁱ  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c Wake Radiology Associates   (United States)

^d SirTex Medical   (Australia)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^f UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^g UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS MD ANDERSON CANCER CENTER   (United States)

^h Angio/Interventional Radiology Section Radiologic Imaging Associates   (United States)

ⁱ NORTHWESTERN MEMORIAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^j UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^k Goshen Cancer Institute   (United States)

^l VANCOUVER GENERAL HOSPITAL   (Canada)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

5 HYDROXYINDOLEACETIC ACID; ALPHA INTERFERON; ANGIOPEPTIN; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CHROMOGRANIN A; CISPLATIN; DACARBAZINE; DOCETAXEL; DOXORUBICIN; EPIRUBICIN; ETOPOSIDE; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE F 18; FLUOROURACIL; GEMCITABINE; LOMUSTINE; METHOTREXATE; MITOMYCIN C; NEUROKININ A; OCTREOTIDE; PACLITAXEL; PENTETREOTIDE; STREPTOZOCIN; TEMSIROLIMUS; YTTRIUM 90;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ARTIFICIAL EMBOLISM; BLOOD LEVEL; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER PATIENT; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER SURGERY; CARCINOID; CARDIOTOXICITY; CHEMOEMBOLIZATION; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CRYOABLATION; DRUG FEVER; EDEMA; HEPATIC ARTERY; HUMAN; LEUKOCYTOSIS; LIVER METASTASIS; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; MALAISE; MICROWAVE RADIATION; MINIMALLY INVASIVE PROCEDURE; MULTIPLE CYCLE TREATMENT; NAUSEA; NEUROENDOCRINE TUMOR; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PAIN; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; RADIOFREQUENCY ABLATION; RADIOISOTOPE THERAPY; REVIEW; THERAPY EFFECT; TREATMENT RESPONSE; TUMOR VOLUME;

CATHETER ABLATION; CRYOSURGERY; EMBOLIZATION, THERAPEUTIC; HUMANS; INFUSIONS, INTRA-ARTERIAL; LIVER NEOPLASMS; NEUROENDOCRINE TUMORS; PROGNOSIS; SURGICAL PROCEDURES, MINIMALLY INVASIVE;

EID: 67650998227     PISSN: 02773732     EISSN: 1537453X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/COC.0b013e318172b3b6     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. Modlin IM, Lye KD, Kidd M. A 5-decade analysis of 13,715 carcinoid tumors. Cancer. 2003;97:934-959.
2. Schnirer II, Yao JC, Ajani JA. Carcinoid - a comprehensive review. Acta Oncol. 2003;42:672-692.
3. Kloppel G, Solcia E, Capella C, et al. Classification of neuroendocrine tumours. Ital J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1999;31(suppl 2):S111-S116.
4. Norton JA. Endocrine tumours of the gastrointestinal tract. Surgical treatment of neuroendocrine metastases. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;19:577-583.
5. Norton JA. Surgery and prognosis of duodenal gastrinoma as a duodenal neuroendocrine tumor. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;19:699- 704.
6. Asamura H, Kameya T, Matsuno Y, et al. Neuroendocrine neoplasms of the lung: a prognostic spectrum. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:70-76.
7. Osborne DA, Zervos EE, Strosberg J, et al. Improved outcome with cytoreduction versus embolization for symptomatic hepatic metastases of carcinoid and neuroendocrine tumors. Ann Surg Oncol. 2006;13:572-581.
8. Neary PC, Redmond PH, Houghton T, et al. Carcinoid disease: review of the literature. Dis Colon Rectum. 1997;40:349-362.
9. Toth-Fejel S, Pommier RF. Relationships among delay of diagnosis, extent of disease, and survival in patients with abdominal carcinoid tumors. Am J Surg. 2004;187:575-579.
10. O'Toole D, Hentic O, Corcos O, et al. Chemotherapy for gastro-enteropancre-atic endocrine tumours. Neuroendocrinology. 2004;80(suppl 1):79-84.
11. Modlin IM, Latich I, Kidd M, et al. Therapeutic options for gastrointestinal carcinoids. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;4:526-547.
12. Plockinger U, Rindi G, Arnold R, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of neuroendocrine gastrointestinal tumours. A consensus statement on behalf of the European Neuroendocrine Tumour Society (ENETS). Neuroendocrinology. 2004;80:394-424.
13. Anthony LB, Kang T, Shyr Y. Malignant carcinoid syndrome: survival in the octreotide LAR era [meeting abstracts]. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(suppl 16):4084.
14. Arnold R. Medical treatment of metastasizing carcinoid tumors. World J Surg. 1996;20:203-207.
15. Modlin IM, Sandor A. An analysis of 8305 cases of carcinoid tumors. Cancer. 1997;79:813-829.
16. Park BJ, Alexander HR, Libutti SK, et al. Operative management of islet-cell tumors arising in the head of the pancreas. Surgery. 1998;124: 1056-1061; discussion 1061-1062.
17. Loftus JP, van Heerden JA. Surgical management of gastrointestinal carci-noid tumors. Adv Surg. 1995;28:317-336.
18. Chen H, Hardacre JM, Uzar A, et al. Isolated liver metastases from neuroendocrine tumors: does resection prolong survival? J Am Coll Surg. 1998;187:88-92; discussion 92-93.
19. Norton JA. Surgical treatment of euroendocrine metastasis. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;19:557-583.
20. McEntee GP, Nagorney DM, Kvols LK, et al. Cytoreductive hepatic surgery for neuroendocrine tumors. Surgery. 1990;108:1091-1096.
21. Boudreaux JP, Putty B, Frey DJ, et al. Surgical treatment of advanced-stage carcinoid tumors: lessons learned. Ann Surg. 2005;241:839-845; discussion 845-846.
22. Norton JA, Kivlen M, Li M, et al. Morbidity and mortality of aggressive resection in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors. Arch Surg. 2003;138:859-866.
23. Sarmiento JM, Que FG. Hepatic surgery for metastases from neuroendocrine tumors. Surg Oncol Clin N Am. 2003;12:231-242.
24. Que FG, Nagorney DM, Batts KP, et al. Hepatic resection for metastatic neuroendocrine carcinomas. Am J Surg. 1995;169:36-42; discussion 42-43.
25. Chamberlain RS, Canes D, Brown KT, et al. Hepatic neuroendocrine metastases: does intervention alter outcomes? J Am Coll Surg. 2000;190: 432-445.
26. O'Toole D, Ruszniewski P. Chemoembolization and other ablative therapies for liver metastases of gastrointestinal endocrine tumours. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;19:585-594.
27. Ahlman H, Friman S, Cahlin C, et al. Liver transplantation for treatment of metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1014:265-269.
28. Stippel DL, Brochhagen HG, Arenja M, et al. Variability of size and shape of necrosis induced by radiofrequency ablation in human livers: a volumetric evaluation. Ann Surg Oncol. 2004;11:420-425.
29. Raman SS, Lu DS, Vodopich DJ, et al. Creation of radiofrequency lesions in a porcine model: correlation with sonography, CT, and histopathology. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2000;175:1253-1258.
30. Livraghi T, Goldberg SN, Lazzaroni S, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma: radio-frequency ablation of medium and large lesions. Radiology. 2000;214: 761-768.
31. Livraghi T, Goldberg SN, Lazzaroni S, et al. Small hepatocellular carcinoma: treatment with radio-frequency ablation versus ethanol injection. Radiology. 1999;210:655-661.
32. Livraghi T, Goldberg SN, Monti F, et al. Saline-enhanced radio-frequency tissue ablation in the treatment of liver metastases. Radiology. 1997;202: 205-210.
33. Ramage JK, Davies AH, Ardill J, et al. Guidelines for the management of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine (including carcinoid) tumours. Gut. 2005;54(suppl 4):iv1-iv16.
34. Siperstein AE, Rogers SJ, Hansen PD, et al. Laparoscopic thermal ablation of hepatic neuroendocrine tumor metastases. Surgery. 1997;122:1147-1154; discussion 1154-1155.
35. Berber E, Flesher V, Siperstein AE. Laparoscopic radiofrequency ablation of neuroendocrine liver metastases. World J Surg. 2002;26:985-990.
36. Gillams A, Cassoni A, Conway G, et al. Radiofrequency ablation of neuroendocrine liver metastases: the Middlesex experience. Abdom Imaging. 2005;30:435-441.
37. Wettstein M, Vogt C, Cohnen M, et al. Serotonin release during percutaneous radiofrequency ablation in a patient with symptomatic liver metastases of a neuroendocrine tumor. Hepatogastroenterology. 2004;51:830-832.
38. Shafir M, Shapiro R, Sung M, et al. Cryoablation of unresectable malignant liver tumors. Am J Surg. 1996;171:27-31.
39. Bilchik AJ, Sarantou T, Foshag LJ, et al. Cryosurgical palliation of metastatic neuroendocrine tumors resistant to conventional therapy. Surgery. 1997;122:1040-1047; discussion 1047-1048.
40. Cozzi PJ, Englund R, Morris DL. Cryotherapy treatment of patients with hepatic metastases from neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer. 1995;76:501-509.
41. Sheen AJ, Poston GJ, Sherlock DJ. Cryotherapeutic ablation of liver tumours. Br J Surg. 2002;89:1396-1401.
42. Coldwell DM, Sewell PE. The expanding role of interventional radiology in the supportive care of the oncology patient: from diagnosis to therapy. Semin Oncol. 2005;32:169-173.
43. Beland MD, Dupuy DE, Mayo-Smith WW. Percutaneous cryoablation of symptomatic extraabdominal metastatic disease: preliminary results. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2005;184:926-930.
44. Breedis C, Young G. The blood supply of neoplasms in the liver. Am J Pathol. 1954;30:969-984.
45. Engstrom PF, Lavin PT, Moertel CG, et al. Streptozocin plus fluorouracil versus doxorubicin therapy for metastatic carcinoid tumor. J Clin Oncol. 1984;2:1255-1259.
46. Takeuchi I, Ishida H, Suzuki T, et al. A case of liver metastases of rectal carcinoid successfully treated with hepatic arterial infusion of methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil [in Japanese]. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho. 1999;26:1929-1932.
47. Wadamori K, Oka M, Shimizu R, et al. A case of multiple liver metastasis from ileac carcinoid effectively treated with continuous intraarterial infusion of somatostatin analog [in Japanese]. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho. 1995;22: 1669-1672.
48. Pueyo I, Jiménez JR, Hernández J, et al. Carcinoid syndrome treated by hepatic embolization. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1978;131:511-513.
49. Lise M, Pilati P, Da Pian P, et al. Treatment options for liver metastases from colorectal cancer. J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2003;22(suppl 4):149-156.
50. Bengmark S, Ericsson M, Lunderquist A, et al. Temporary liver dearterialization in patients with metastatic carcinoid disease. World J Surg. 1982;6: 46-53.
51. Lunderquist A, Ericsson M, Nobin A, et al. Gelfoam powder embolization of the hepatic artery in liver metastases of carcinoid tumors. Radiologe. 1982;22:65-70.
52. Martensson H, Nobin A, Bengmark S, et al. Embolization of the liver in the management of metastatic carcinoid tumors. J Surg Oncol. 1984;27:152-158.
53. Schell SR, Camp ER, Caridi JG, et al. Hepatic artery embolization for control of symptoms, octreotide requirements, and tumor progression in metastatic carcinoid tumors. J Gastrointest Surg. 2002;6:664-670.
54. Ajani JA, Carrasco CH, Charnsangavej C, et al. Islet cell tumors metastatic to the liver: effective palliation by sequential hepatic artery embolization. Ann Intern Med. 1988;108:340-344.
55. Roche A, Girish BV, de Baere T, et al. Prognostic factors for chemoembolization in liver metastasis from endocrine tumors. Hepatogastroenterology. 2004;51:1751-1756.
56. Nesovic M, Ciric J, Radojkovic S, et al. Improvement of metastatic endocrine tumors of the pancreas by hepatic artery chemoembolization. J Endocrinol Invest. 1992;15:543-547.
57. Diaco DS, Hajarizadeh H, Mueller CR, et al. Treatment of metastatic carcinoid tumors using multimodality therapy of octreotide acetate, intraarterial chemotherapy, and hepatic arterial chemoembolization. Am J Surg. 1995;169:523-528.
58. Belli L, Magistretti G, Puricelli GP, et al. Arteritis following intra-arterial chemotherapy for liver tumors. Eur Radiol. 1997;7:323-326.
59. Chung JW, Park JH, Han JK, et al. Hepatic tumors: predisposing factors for complications of transcatheter oily chemoembolization. Radiology. 1996; 198:33-40.
60. Marelli L, Stigliano R, Triantos C, et al. Transarterial therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: which technique is more effective? A systematic review of cohort and randomized studies. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2007;30:6-25.
61. Kulke MH, Wu B, Ryan DP, et al. A phase II trial of irinotecan and cisplatin in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Dig Dis Sci. 2006;51: 1033-1038.
62. Ruutiainen AT, Soulen MC, Tuite CM, et al. Chemoembolization and bland embolization of neuroendocrine tumor metastases to the liver. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2007;18:847-855.
63. Madoff DC, Gupta S, Ahrar K, et al. Update on the management of neuroendocrine hepatic metastases. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2006;17:1235-1249.
64. Stuart K. Chemoembolization in the management of liver tumors. Oncologist. 2003;8:425-437.
65. Latoo MY, Oliver A, Roebuck D. Anaesthetic management of hepatic artery chemoembolization in a paediatric patient. Paediatr Anaesth. 2002;12:629-631.
66. Berger DH, Carrasco CH, Hohn DC, et al. Hepatic artery chemoembolization or embolization for primary and metastatic liver tumors: post-treatment management and complications. J Surg Oncol. 1995;60:116-121.
67. Maisano R, Spadaro P, Toscano G, et al. Cisapride and dexamethasone in the prevention of delayed emesis after cisplatin administration. Support Care Cancer. 2001;9:61-64.
68. Kirchhoff T, Chavan A, Galanski M. Chemoembolization of hepatic metastases from intestinal neuroendocrine tumours. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2000;12:141-143.
69. Kennedy A, Nag S, Salem R, et al. Recommendations for radioembolization of hepatic malignancies using yttrium-90 microsphere brachytherapy: a consensus panel report from the radioembolization brachytherapy oncology consortium. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;68:13-23.
70. Kennedy AS, Nutting C, Coldwell D, et al. Pathologic response and microdosimetry of (90)Y microspheres in man: review of four explanted whole livers. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;60:1552-1563.
71. Salem R, Lewandowski RJ, Atassi B, et al. Treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma with use of 90Y microspheres (TheraSphere): safety, tumor response, and survival. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005;16:1627-1639.
72. Sarfaraz M, Kennedy AS, Cao ZJ, et al. Physical aspects of yttrium-90 microsphere therapy for nonresectable hepatic tumors. Med Phys. 2003;30: 199-203.
73. Murthy R, Nunez R, Szklaruk J, et al. Yttrium-90 microsphere therapy for hepatic malignancy: devices, indications, technical considerations, and potential complications. Radiographics. 2005;25(suppl 1):S41-S55.
74. Kvetnoy IM, Yuzhakov VV, Molotkov AO, et al. Diffuse neuroendocrine system: structural and functional effects of radiation injury to amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation (APUD) cells. Scanning Microsc. 1996; 10:261-276; discussion 276-278.
75. Duchesne G, Cassoni A, Pera M. Radiosensitivity related to neuroendocrine and endodermal differentiation in lung carcinoma lines. Radiother Oncol. 1988;13:153-161.
76. Sato K, Lewandowski RJ, Bui JT, et al. Treatment of unresectable primary and metastatic liver cancer with yttrium-90 microspheres (TheraSphere): assessment of hepatic arterial embolization. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2006;29:522-529.
77. Young JY, Rhee TK, Atassi B, et al. Radiation dose limits and liver toxicities resulting from multiple yttrium-90 radioembolization treatments for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2007;18:1375-1382.
78. Murthy R, Xiong H, Nunez R, et al. Yttrium 90 resin microspheres for the treatment of unresectable colorectal hepatic metastases after failure of multiple chemotherapy regimens: preliminary results. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005;16:937-945.
79. Popperl G, Helmberger T, Münzing W, et al. Selective internal radiation therapy with SIR-Spheres in patients with nonresectable liver tumors. Cancer Biother Radiopharm. 2005;20:200-208.
80. Goin JE, Salem R, Carr BI, et al. Treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma with intrahepatic yttrium 90 microspheres: a risk-stratification analysis. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005;16(2, pt 1):195-203.
81. Kulik LM, Mulcahy MF, Hunter RD, et al. Use of yttrium-90 microspheres (TheraSphere) in a patient with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma leading to liver transplantation: a case report. Liver Transpl. 2005;11:1127-1131.
82. Kennedy A, et al. Hepatic Brachytherapy for GI Neuroendocrine Tumors with 90Y-Microspheres: Long Term USA Experience. In: 16th International Conference on Anti-Cancer Treatment. 2005. Paris, France. Abstract 285.
83. Rhee TK, Lewandowski RJ, Liu DM, et al. 90Y Radioembolization for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors to the liver: multi-institutional experience. Ann Surg. 2008;247:1029-1035.
84. Kennedy A, et al. Resin 90Y-Microsphere Brachytherapy for Unresectable Neuroendocrine Hepatic Metastases. In: Second Annual Microsphere Clinical Symposium; 2006; Scottsdale, AZ.
85. Morris DL, et al. Pilot Study of SIR-Spheres in Liver Metastases From Neuroendocrine Cancer. In: American Hepato-Pancreatico-Biliary Association 2006 Annual Meeting; 2006; Miami Beach, Florida: Taylor & Francis Group. Abstract B1.
86. Kan Z, Wright K, Wallace S. Ethiodized oil emulsions in hepatic microcirculation: in vivo microscopy in animal models. Acad Radiol. 1997;4:275-282.
87. Liu DM, Salem R, Bui JT, et al. Angiographic considerations in patients undergoing liver-directed therapy. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005;16:911-935.
88. Lewandowski RJ, Sato KT, Atassi B, et al. Radioembolization with 90Y microspheres: angiographic and technical considerations. Cardiovasc Inter-vent Radiol. 2007;30:571-592.
89. Salem R, Thurston KG. Radioembolization with 90Yttrium microspheres: a state-of-the-art brachytherapy treatment for primary and secondary liver malignancies. Part 1: technical and methodologic considerations. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2006;17:1251-1278.
90. Goin JE, Salem R, Carr BI, et al. Treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma with intrahepatic yttrium 90 microspheres: factors associated with liver toxicities. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005;16(2, pt 1):205-213.
91. Kvols LK. Therapy of the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1989;18:557-568.
92. Lawrence JP, Ishizuka J, Haber B, et al. The effect of somatostatin on 5-hydroxytryptamine release from a carcinoid tumor. Surgery. 1990;108: 1131-1134; discussion 1134-1135.
93. Oberg K, Kvols L, Caplin M, et al. Consensus report on the use of somatostatin analogs for the management of neuroendocrine tumors of the gastroenteropancreatic system. Ann Oncol. 2004;15:966-973.
94. Vaughan DJ, Brunner MD. Anesthesia for patients with carcinoid syndrome. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 1997;35:129-142.
95. Hughes EW, Hodkinson BP. Carcinoid syndrome: the combined use of ketanserin and octreotide in the management of an acute crisis during anaesthesia. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1989;17:367-370.
96. Roy RC, Carter RF, Wright PD. Somatostatin, anaesthesia, and the carcinoid syndrome. Peri-operative administration of a somatostatin analogue to suppress carcinoid tumour activity. Anaesthesia. 1987;42:627-632.
97. Mulvihill SJ. Perioperative use of octreotide in gastrointestinal surgery. Digestion. 1993;54(suppl 1):33-37.
98. Houghton K, Carter JA. Peri-operative management of carcinoid syndrome using ketanserin. Anaesthesia. 1986;41:596-599.
99. Ahlman H, Nilsson O, Wängberg B, et al. Neuroendocrine insights from the laboratory to the clinic. Am J Surg. 1996;172:61-67.
100. Ihse I, Lindell G, Tibblin S. Endocrine: small bowel neuroendocrine tumors. Surgical treatment: evidece based and problem oriented 2001. 2001, 2005. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid= surg.section.3827.
101. Veall GR, Peacock JE, Bax ND, et al. Review of the anaesthetic management of 21 patients undergoing laparotomy for carcinoid syndrome. Br J Anaesth. 1994;72:335-341.
102. Kopp AF, Heuschmid M, Claussen CD. Multidetector helical CT of the liver for tumor detection and characterization. Eur Radiol. 2002;12:745-752.
103. Krenning EP, Kooij PP, Pauwels. S, et al. Somatostatin receptor: scintigraphy and radionuclide therapy. Digestion. 1996;57(suppl 1):57-61.
104. Paulson EK, McDermott VG, Keogan MT, et al. Carcinoid metastases to the liver: role of triple-phase helical CT. Radiology. 1998;206:143-150.
105. Rappeport ED, Hansen CP, Kjaer A, et al. Multidetector computed tomography and neuroendocrine pancreaticoduodenal tumors. Acta Radiol. 2006; 47:248-256.
106. Chiti A, Fanti S, Savelli G, et al. Comparison of somatostatin receptor imaging, computed tomography and ultrasound in the clinical management of neuroendocrine gastro-entero-pancreatic tumours. Eur J Nucl Med. 1998; 25:1396-1403.
107. Cwikla JB, Buscombe JR, Caplin ME, et al. Diagnostic imaging of carcinoid metastases to the abdomen and pelvis. Med Sci Monit. 2004;10(suppl 3):9-16.
108. Amthauer H, Denecke T, Rohlfing T, et al. Value of image fusion using single photon emission computed tomography with integrated low dose computed tomography in comparison with a retrospective voxel-based method in neuroendocrine tumours. Eur Radiol. 2005;15:1456-1462.
109. Adams S, Baum R, Rink T, et al. Limited value of fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for the imaging of neuroendocrine tumours. Eur J Nucl Med. 1998;25:79-83.
110. Belhocine T, Foidart J, Rigo P, et al. Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography and somatostatin receptor scintigraphy for diagnosing and staging carcinoid tumours: correlations with the pathological indexes p53 and Ki-67. Nucl Med Commun. 2002;23:727-734.
111. Eriksson B, Orlefors H, Oberg K, et al. Developments in PET for the detection of endocrine tumours. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;19:311-324.
112. Nikou GC, Lygidakis NJ, Toubanakis C, et al. Current diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal carcinoids in a series of 101 patients: the significance of serum chromogranin-A, somatostatin receptor scintigraphy and somatostatin analogues. Hepatogastroenterology. 2005;52:731-741.
113. Stivanello M, Berruti A, Torta M, et al. Circulating chromogranin A in the assessment of patients with neuroendocrine tumours. A single institution experience. Ann Oncol. 2001;12(suppl 2):S73-S77.
114. Turner GB, Johnston BT, McCance DR, et al. Circulating markers of prognosis and response to treatment in patients with midgut carcinoid tumours. Gut. 2006;55:1586-1591.
115. Siperstein AE, Berber E. Cryoablation, percutaneous alcohol injection, and radiofrequency ablation for treatment of neuroendocrine liver metastases. World J Surg. 2001;25:693-696.
116. Van Gompel JJ, Sippel RS, Warner TF, et al. Gastrointestinal carcinoid tumors: factors that predict outcome. World J Surg. 2004;28:387-392.
117. Kennedy A, Dezarn WA, McNeillie P, et al. Radioembolization for unresectable neuroendocrine hepatic metastases using resin 90Y-microspheres: early results in 148 patients. Am J Clin Onc. 2008;31:271-279.
118. King J, Quinn R, Glenn DM, et al. Radioembolization with selective internal radiation microspheres for neuroendocrine liver metastases. Cancer. 2008; 113:921-929.
119. Wagner J. Pilot study of SIR-spheres in neuroendocrine tumor liver metastasis. In: Integrating Radioembolisation into Routine Clinical Practise: 2nd Euroepan Symposium on Liver-Directed Cancer Theapy using Microspheres; 2008; Rome, Italy.
120. Murthy R, Kamat P, Nunez R, et al. Yttrium-90 microsphere radioembolotherapy of hepatic metastatic neuroendocrine carcinomas after hepatic arterial embolization. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2008;19:145-151.
121. Meranze SG, Bream PR, Grzeszczak E. Phase II clinical trian of yttrium-90 resin microspheres for the treatment of metastatic neuroendocrine tumor. In: Society of Interventional Radiology; 2007; Seattle.
122. McGrath S, Kennedy A, Dezarn W. Resin 90Y-microsphere radioembolization is effective in controlling hepatic metastases from neuroendocrine primary cancers. In: Emerging Trends in Radioembolization using Microspheres: Third Annual Clinical Symposium; 2007; Chicago.
123. Coldwell D, Nutting C, Kennedy A. Use of yttrium-90 SIR-spheres to treat unresectable metastatic neuroendocrine tumors in the liver. In: World Congress of Gastrointestinal Cance; 2005; Barcelona, Spain.
124. Varker KA, Martin EW, Klemanski D, et al. Repeat transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) for progressive hepatic carcinoid metastases provides results similar to first TACE. J Gastrointest Surg. 2007;11:1680-1685.
125. Ho AS, Picus J, Darcy MD, et al. Long-term outcome after chemoembolization and embolization of hepatic metastatic lesions from neuroendocrine tumors. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2007;188:1201-1207.
126. Bloomston M, Al-Saif O, Klemanski D, et al. Hepatic artery chemoembolization in 122 patients with metastatic carcinoid tumor: lessons learned. J Gastrointest Surg. 2007;11:264-271.
127. Strosberg JR, Choi J, Cantor AB, et al. Selective hepatic artery embolization for treatment of patients with meastatic carcinoid and pancreatic endocrine tumors. Cancer Control. 2006;13:72-78.
128. Gupta S, Johnson MM, Murthy R, et al. Hepatic arterial embolization and chemoembolization for the treatment of patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors: variables affecting response rates and survival. Cancer. 2005;104:1590-1602.
129. Touzios JG, Kiely JM, Pitt SC, et al. Neuroendocrine hepatic metastases: does aggressive management improve survival? Ann Surg. 2005;241:776-783; discussion 783-785.
130. Fiorentini G, Rossi S, Bonechi F, et al. Intra-arterial hepatic chemoembolization in liver metastases from neuroendocrine tumors: a phase II study. J Chemother. 2004;16:293-297.
131. Kress O, Wagner HJ, Wied M, et al. Transarterial chemoembolization of advanced liver metastases of neuroendocrine tumors-a retrospective singlecenter analysis. Digestion. 2003;68:94 -101.
132. Roche A, Girish BV, de Baère T, et al. Trans-catheter arterial chemoembolization as first-line treatment for hepatic metastases from endocrine tumors. Eur Radiol. 2003;13:136-140.
133. Loewe C, Schindl M, Cejna M, et al. Permanent transarterial embolization of neuroendocrine metastases of the liver using cyanoacrylate and lipiodol: assessment of mid- and long-term results. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2003;180: 1379-1384.
134. Yao KA, Talamonti MS, Nemcek A, et al. Indications and results of liver resection and hepatic chemoembolization for metastatic gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors. Surgery. 2001;130:677-682; discussion 682-685.
135. Dominguez S, Denys A, Madeira I, et al. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization with streptozotocin in patients with metastatic digestive endocrine tumours. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2000;12:151-157.
136. Brown KT, Koh BY, Brody LA. Particle embolization of hepatic neuroendocrine metastases for control of pain and hormonal symptoms. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 1999;10:397-403.
137. Kim YH, Ajani JA, Carrasco CH, et al. Selective hepatic arterial chemo- embolization for liver metastases in patients with carcinoid tumor or islet cell carcinoma. Cancer Invest. 1999;17:474-478.
138. Falconi M, Bassi C, Bonora A, et al. Role of chemoembolization in synchronous liver metastases from pancreatic endocrine tumours. Dig Surg. 1999;16:32-38.
139. Eriksson BK, Larsson EG, Skogseid BM, et al. Liver embolizations of patients with malignant neuroendocrine gastrointestinal tumors. Cancer. 1998;83:2293-2301.
140. Drougas JG, Anthony LB, Blair TK, et al. Hepatic artery chemoembolization for management of patients with advanced metastatic carcinoid tumors. Am J Surg. 1998;175:408-412.
141. Moertel CG, Johnson CM, McKusick MA, et al. The management of patients with advanced carcinoid tumors and islet cell carcinomas. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:302-309.
142. Clouse ME, Perry L, Stuart K, et al. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Digestion. 1994;55(suppl 3):92-97.
143. Ruszniewski P, Rougier P, Roche A, et al. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization in patients with liver metastases of endocrine tumors: a prospective phase II study in 24 patients. Cancer. 1993;71:2624-2630.
144. Therasse E, Breittmayer F, Roche A, et al. Transcatheter chemoembolization of progressive carcinoid liver metastasis. Radiology. 1993;189:541-547.
145. Frilling A, Weber F, Saner F, et al. Treatment with (90)Y- and (177)Lu-DOTATOC in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Surgery. 2006;140:968-976; discussion 976-977.
146. McStay MK, Maudgil D, Williams M, et al. Large-volume liver metastases from neuroendocrine tumors: hepatic intraarterial 90Y-DOTA-lanreotide as effective palliative therapy. Radiology. 2005;237:718-726.
147. Kwekkeboom DJ, Teunissen JJ, Bakker WH, et al. Radiolabeled somatostatin analog [177Lu-DOTA0, Tyr3]octreotate in patients with endocrine gastroentero-pancreatic tumors. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:2754-2762.
148. Bodei L, Handkiewicz-Junak D, Grana C, et al. Receptor radionuclide therapy with 90Y-DOTATOC in patients with medullary thyroid carcinomas. Cancer Biother Radiopharm. 2004;19:65-71.
149. Teunissen JJ, Kwekkeboom DJ, Krenning EP. Quality of life in patients with gastroenteropancreatic tumors treated with [177Lu-DOTA0, Tyr3]octreotate. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:2724-2729.
150. Buscombe JR, Caplin ME, Hilson AJ. Long-term efficacy of high-activity 111in-pentetreotide therapy in patients with disseminated neuroendocrine tumors. J Nucl Med. 2003;44:1-6.
151. Waldherr C, Pless M, Maecke HR, et al. Tumor response and clinical benefit in neuroendocrine tumors after 7.4 GBq (90)Y-DOTATOC. J Nucl Med. 2002;43:610-616.
152. Anthony LB, Woltering EA, Espenan GD, etal. Indium-111-pentetreotide prolongs survival in gastroenteropancreatic malignancies. Semin Nucl Med. 2002;32:123-132.
153. Valkema R, De Jong M, Bakker WH, et al. Phase I study of peptide receptor radionuclide therapy with [In-DTPA]octreotide: the Rotterdam experience. Semin Nucl Med. 2002;32:110-122.
154. Paganelli G, Bodei L, Handkiewicz JD, et al. 90Y-DOTA-D-Phe1-Try3- octreotide in therapy of neuroendocrine malignancies. Biopolymers. 2002;66:393-398.
155. Virgolini I, Britton K, Buscombe J, et al. In- and Y-DOTA-lanreotide: results and implications of the MAURITIUS trial. Semin Nucl Med. 2002; 32:148-155.
156. Chinol M, Bodei L, Cremonesi M, et al. Receptor-mediated radiotherapy with Y-DOTA-DPhe-Tyr-octreotide: the experience of the European Institute of Oncology Group. Semin Nucl Med. 2002;32:141-147.
157. Waldherr C, Pless M, Maecke HR, et al. The clinical value of [90Y-DOTA]-D-Phe1-Tyr3-octreotide (90Y-DOTATOC) in the treatment of neuroendocrine tumours: a clinical phase II study. Ann Oncol. 2001;12:941-945.
158. Buscombe JR, Cwikla JB, Caplin ME, et al. Long-term efficacy of low activity meta-[131I]iodobenzylguanidine therapy in patients with disseminated neuroendocrine tumours depends on initial response. Nucl Med Commun. 2005;26:969-976.
159. Sywak MS, Pasieka JL, McEwan A, et al. 131I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine in the management of metastatic midgut carcinoid tumors. World J Surg. 2004;28:1157-1162.
160. Safford SD, Coleman RE, Gockerman JP, et al. Iodine-131 metaiodoben- zylguanidine treatment for metastatic carcinoid. Results in 98 patients. Cancer. 2004;101:1987-1993.
161. Bomanji JB, Wong W, Gaze MN, et al. Treatment of neuroendocrine tumours in adults with 131I-MIBG therapy. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2003;15:193-198.
162. Mukherjee JJ, Kaltsas GA, Islam N, et al. Treatment of metastatic carcinoid tumours, phaeochromocytoma, paraganglioma and medullary carcinoma of the thyroid with (131)I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine [(131)I-mIBG]. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2001;55:47-60.
163. Taal BG, Hoefnagel C, Boot H, et al. Improved effect of 131I-MIBG treatment by predosing with non-radiolabeled MIBG in carcinoid patients, and studies in xenografted mice. Ann Oncol. 2000;11:1437-1443.
164. Duran I, Kortmansky J, Singh D, et al. A phase II clinical and pharmacodynamic study of temsirolimus in advanced neuroendocrine carcinomas. Br J Cancer. 2006;95:1148-1154.
165. Arnold R, Rinke A, Klose KJ, et al. Octreotide versus octreotide plus interferon-alpha in endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors: a randomized trial. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;3:761-771.
166. Sun W, Lipsitz S, Catalano P, et al. Phase II/III study of doxorubicin with fluorouracil compared with streptozocin with fluorouracil or dacarbazine in the treatment of advanced carcinoid tumors: Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Study E1281. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:4897-4904.
167. McCollum AD, Kulke MH, Ryan DP, et al. Lack of efficacy of streptozocin and doxorubicin in patients with advanced pancreatic endocrine tumors. Am J Clin Oncol. 2004;27:485-488.
168. Kulke MH, Kim H, Clark JW, et al. A phase II trial of gemcitabine for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer. 2004;101:934-939.
169. Kulke MH, Kim H, Stuart K, et al. A phase II study of docetaxel in patients with metastatic carcinoid tumors. Cancer Invest. 2004;22:353-359.
170. Kolby L, Persson G, Franzen S, et al. Randomized clinical trial of the effect of interferon alpha on survival in patients with disseminated midgut carcinoid tumours. Br J Surg. 2003;90:687-693.
171. Faiss S, Pape UF, Böhmig M, et al. Prospective, randomized, multicenter trial on the antiproliferative effect of lanreotide, interferon alfa, and their combination for therapy of metastatic neuroendocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors-the International Lanreotide and Interferon Alfa Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:2689-2696.
172. Bajetta E, Ferrari L, Procopio G, et al. Efficacy of a chemotherapy combination for the treatment of metastatic neuroendocrine tumours. Ann Oncol. 2002;13:614-621.
173. Kaltsas GA, Mukherjee JJ, Isidori A, et al. Treatment of advanced
174. Ansell SM, Pitot HC, Burch PA, et al. A phase II study of high-dose paclitaxel in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer. 2001; 91:1543-1548.
175. Cheng PN, Saltz LB. Failure to confirm major objective antitumor activity for streptozocin and doxorubicin in the treatment of patients with advanced islet cell carcinoma. Cancer. 1999;86:944-948.
176. Mitry E, Baudin E, Ducreux M, et al. Treatment of poorly differentiated neuroendocrine tumours with etoposide and cisplatin. Br J Cancer. 1999; 81:1351-1355.
177. Rivera E, Ajani JA. Doxorubicin, streptozocin, and 5-fluorouracil chemotherapy for patients with metastatic islet-cell carcinoma. Am J Clin Oncol. 1998;21:36-38.
178. Neijt JP, Lacave AJ, Splinter TA, et al. Mitoxantrone in metastatic apudomas: a phase II study of the EORTC Gastro-Intestinal Cancer Cooperative Group. Br J Cancer. 1995;71:106-108.
179. Bukowski RM, Tangen CM, Peterson RF, et al. Phase II trial of dimethyl-triazenoimidazole carboxamide in patients with metastatic carcinoid. A Southwest Oncology Group study. Cancer. 1994;73:1505-1508.
180. Moertel CG, Lefkopoulo M, Lipsitz S, et al. Streptozocin-doxorubicin, streptozocin-fluorouracil or chlorozotocin in the treatment of advanced islet-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:519-523.
181. Moertel CG, Kvols LK, O'Connell MJ, et al. Treatment of neuroendocrine carcinomas with combined etoposide and cisplatin. Evidence of major therapeutic activity in the anaplastic variants of these neoplasms. Cancer. 1991;68:227-232.