The specificity of training prescription and physiological assessment: A review

Journal of Sports Sciences

Volumn 27, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 575-589

  Reilly, Thomas ^a   Morris, Tessa ^a   Whyte, Greg ^a  

^a LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aerobic; Concurrent training; Cross training; Power; Specificity; Strength

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; AEROBIC CAPACITY; AEROBIC EXERCISE; ATHLETE; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; CROSS TRAINING; ERGOMETER; FITNESS; HUMAN; MUSCLE STRENGTH; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PHYSICAL CAPACITY; PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE; PRESCRIPTION; RELIABILITY; REVIEW; SPORTS SCIENCE; TEAMWORK; VALIDITY;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE; EXERCISE; HUMANS; MUSCLE STRENGTH; PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING; PHYSICAL FITNESS;

EID: 67650272821     PISSN: 02640414     EISSN: 1466447X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02640410902729741     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Aagard, P., Simonsen, E. B., Trolle, M., Bangsbo, J. and Klausen, K. (1996) Specificity of training velocity and training load on gains in isokinetic knee joint strength. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 156, pp. 123-129.
2. Abdelkrim, N. B., Fazaa, S. E. and Ati, J. E. (2007) Time-motion analysis and physiological data of elite under-19 basketball players during competition. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 41, pp. 69-75.
3. Andersen, P. and Henriksson, J. (1978) Capillary supply of the quadriceps femoris muscle in man: Adaptive responses to exercise. Journal of Physiology, 270, pp. 677-690.
4. Anderson, M., Hopkins, W., Roberts, A. and Pyne, D. (2008) Ability of test measures to predict competitive performance in elite swimmers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, pp. 113-122.
5. Åstrand, P. O. and Englesson, S. (1972) A swimming flume. Journal of Applied Physiology, 33, p. 514.
6. Baar, K. (2006) Training for endurance and strength: Lessons from cell signaling. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, pp. 1939-1944.
7. Bangsbo, J. (1994) Energy demands in competitive soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 12, pp. s5-s12.
8. Banzer, W., Thiel, C., Rosenhagen, A. and Vogt, L. (2008) Tennis ranking related to exercise capacity. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 42, pp. 152-154.
9. Behm, D. G. and Sale, D. G. (1993) Velocity specificity of resistance training. Sports Medicine, 15, pp. 374-388.
10. Bentley, D. J. and Bishop, D. (2008) Science and medicine of triathlon. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 11, pp. 361-362.
11. Billat, V. L., Demerle, A., Slawinski, J., Paiva, M. and Koralzstein, J. P. (2001) Physical and training characteristics of top-class marathon runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33, pp. 2089-2097.
12. Billat, V. L., Lepetre, P. M., Heugas, A. M., Laurence, M. H., Salim, D. and Koralzstein, J. P. (2003) Training and bioenergetic characteristics of elite male and female Kenyan runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35, pp. 297-304.
13. Bishop, D. (2003) A comparison between land and sand-based tests for beach volleyball assessment. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 43, pp. 418-423.
14. Blazevich, A. J. and Jenkins, D. G. (2002) Effect of the movement speed of resistance training exercises on sprint and strength performance in concurrently training elite junior sprinters. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, pp. 981-990.
15. Bojsen-Moller, J., Larson, B., Magnusson, S. P. and Aagard, P. (2007) Yacht type and crew-specific differences in anthropometric, aerobic capacity and muscle strength parameters among international Olympic class sailors. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, pp. 1117-1128.
16. Boocock, M. G., Garbutt, G., Linge, K., Reilly, T. and Troup, J. D. G. (1990) Changes in stature following drop jumping and post-exercise gravity inversion. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22, pp. 385-390.
17. Bowers, E. J., Morgan, D. L. and Proske, U. (2004) Damage to the human quadriceps muscle and the training effect. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, pp. 1205-1214.
18. Carter, A. B., Kaminski, T. W., Douex Jr., A. J. and Richardson, J. G. (2007) Effects of high volume upper extremity plyometric training on throwing velocity and functional strength ratios of the shoulder rotators in collegiate basketball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21, pp. 208-215.
19. Carter, H., Grice, Y., Dekerle, J., Brickley, G. and Hammond, A. J. P. (2005) Effect of prior exercise above and below critical power on exercise to exhaustion. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37, pp. 773-781.
20. Chu, D. H. (1998) Jumping into plyometrics, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL
21. Clarke, N. D., Drust, B., MacLaren, D. P. and Reilly, T. (2005) Strategies for hydration and energy provision during soccer-specific exercise. International Journal of Sports Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 15, pp. 625-640.
22. Clarkson, P. M. and Sayers, S. P. (1999) Etiology of exercise-induced muscle damage. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 24, pp. 234-248.
23. Coffey, V. G., Reeder, D. W., Lancaster, G. I., Yeo, W. J., Febbraio, M. A. Yaspelkis III, B. B. et al. (2007) Effect of high-frequency resistance exercise on adaptive responses in skeletal muscle. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, pp. 2135-2144.
24. Cosgrove, M. J., Wilson, J., Watt, D. and Grant, S. F. (1999) The relationship between selected physiological variables of rowers and rowing performance as determined by a 2000 m ergometer test. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, pp. 845-852.
25. Creagh, U., Reilly, T. and Lees, A. (1998) Kinematics of running in off-road terrain. Ergonomics, 41, pp. 1029-1033.
26. Cronin, J., McNair, P. J. and Marshall, R. N. (2001) Velocity specificity, combination training and sport specific tasks. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 4, pp. 168-178.
27. Cunningham, P. and Hale, T. (2007) Physiological responses of elite Laser sailors to 30 minutes of simulated upwind sailing. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, pp. 1109-1116.
28. Davey, P. R., Thorpe, R. D. and Williams, C. (2002) Fatigue decreases skilled tennis performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, pp. 311-318.
29. Dekerle, J., Pelayo, P., Clipet, B., Depretz, S., Lefevre, T. and Sidney, M. (2005) Critical swimming speed does not represent the speed at maximal lactate steady state. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 26, pp. 524-530.
30. Derham, S. and Reilly, T. (1993) Ergometric assessment of kayak paddlers. Kinanthropometry IV, pp. 150-156. E & FN Spon, London
31. Deschenes, M. R. and Kraemer, W. J. (2002) Performance and physiologic adaptations to resistance training. American Journal of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation, 81, pp. S3-S16.
32. Desmedt, J. E. (1981) The size principle of motoneuron recruitment in ballistic or ramp-voluntary contractions in man. Progress in clinical neurophysiology, Vol. 9: Motor unit types and plasticity in health and disease, pp. 250-304. Karger, Basel
33. diPrampero, P. E., Dekere, J., Capelli, C. and Zamparo, P. (2008) The critical velocity of swimming. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 102, pp. 165-171.
34. Dowzer, C. N., Reilly, T. and Cable, N. T. (1998) Effects of deep and shallow water running on spinal shrinkage. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 32, pp. 44-48.
35. Driss, T., Vandewalle, H., Quievre, J., Miller, C. and Monod, H. (2001) Effects of external loading on power output in a squat jump: A comparison between strength and power athletes and sedentary individuals. Journal of Sports Sciences, 19, pp. 99-105.
36. Drust, B., Reilly, T. and Cable, T. (2000) Physiological responses to laboratory-based soccer-specific intermittent and continuous exercise. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, pp. 885-892.
37. Elferink-Gemser, M. T., Visscher, C., Lemminck, K. A. P. M. and Mulder, T. (2007) Multidimensional performance characteristics and standard of performance in talented youth field hockey players: A longitudinal study. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, pp. 481-489.
38. Farlinger, C. M., Kruisselbrink, L. D. and Fowles, J. R. (2007) Relationships to skating performance in competitive hockey players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21, pp. 915-922.
39. Fernandez, J., Mendez-Villanueva, A. and Pluim, B. M. (2006) Intensity of tennis match play. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, pp. 387-391.
40. Firth, M. S. (1981) A sport specific training and testing device for racing cyclists. Ergonomics, 24, pp. 567-571.
41. Folland, J. P., Hawker, K., Leach, B., Little, T. and Jones, D. A. (2005) Strength training: Isometric training at a range of joint angles versus dynamic training. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23, pp. 817-824.
42. Folland, J. P. and Williams, A. G. (2007) The adaptations to strength training: Morphological and neurological contributions to increased muscle strength. Sports Medicine, 37, pp. 145-168.
43. Fowler, N. E., Lees, A. and Reilly, T. (1997) Changes in stature following plyometric drop-jump and pendulum exercises. Ergonomics, 40, pp. 1279-1286.
44. Girard, O., Chevalier, R., Leveque, F., Micallef, J. P. and Millet, G. P. (2008) A specific incremental test in tennis. Science and racket sports IV, pp. 36-43. Routledge, London
45. Girard, O., Sciberras, P., Habrard, M., Hot, P., Chevalier, R. and Millet, G. P. (2005) Specific incremental test in elite squash players. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, pp. 921-926.
46. Godfrey, R. J. and Whyte, G. (2006) Training specificity. The physiology of training, pp. 23-43. Elsevier, Amsterdam
47. Goldspink, G. (1992) Cellular and molecular aspects of adaptation in skeletal muscle. Strength and power in sport, pp. 211-229. Blackwell, Oxford
48. Gollnick, P. D. and Hermansen, L. (1973) Biochemical adaptations to exercise: Anaerobic metabolism. Exercise and sport sciences reviews, 1, pp. 1-43. Academic Press, New York
49. Gonzales-Haro, C., Galilea, P. A., Drobnic, F. and Escanero, J. F. (2007) Validation of a field test to determine the maximal aerobic power in triathletes and endurance cyclists. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 41, pp. 174-179.
50. Goosey-Tolfrey, V., Castle, P. and Webborn, N. (2006) Aerobic capacity and peak power of elite quadriplegic athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, pp. 684-687.
51. Graham-Smith, P., Fell, N., Gilbert, G., Burke, J. and Reilly, T. (2001) Ergonomic evaluation of a weighted vest for power training. Contemporary ergonomics, pp. 493-497. Taylor & Francis, London
52. Harris, N., Cronin, J. and Keogh, J. (2007) Contraction force velocity and its relationship to functional performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, pp. 201-212.
53. Hausswirth, C. and Brisswalter, J. (2008) Strategies for improving performance in long duration events: Olympic distance triathlon. Sports Medicine, 38, pp. 888-891.
54. Hawley, J. A. and Spargo, F. J. (2007) Metabolic adaptations to marathon training and racing. Sports Medicine, 37, pp. 328-331.
55. Hawley, J. R., Tipton, K. D. and Millford-Stafford, M. L. (2006) Promoting training adaptations through nutritional interventions. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, pp. 709-721.
56. Hickman, R. (1980) Influence of strength development by simultaneously training for strength and endurance. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 45, pp. 255-263.
57. Holloszy, J. O. and Coyle, E. F. (1984) Adaptations of skeletal muscle to endurance training and their metabolic consequences. Journal of Applied Physiology, 52, pp. 831-838.
58. Holmberg, H. C. and Nilsson, J. (2008) Reliability and validity of a new double-poling ergometer for cross-country skiers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, pp. 171-179.
59. Hughes, M. and Clarke, S. (1995) Surface effect on elite tennis strategy. Scienceland racket sports, pp. 272-277. E and F Spon, London
60. Hughes, M. G., Doherty, M., Tong, R. J., Reilly, T. and Cable, N. T. (2006) Reliability of repeated sprint exercise in non-motorised treadmill ergometry. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 27, pp. 900-904.
61. Impellizeri, F. M., Marcora, S. M., Castagna, C., Reilly, T., Sassi, A. Iaia, F. M. et al. (2006) Physiological and performance effects of generic versus specific aerobic training in soccer players. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 27, pp. 483-492.
62. Impellizeri, F. M., Rampinini, E., Castagna, C., Martino, F., Fiorini, S. and Wisloff, U. (2008) Effect of plyometric training on sand versus grass on muscle soreness and sprint and jumping ability in soccer players. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 42, pp. 42-46.
63. Ingham, S., Carter, H., Whyte, G. P. and Doust, J. (2007) Comparison of the oxygen uptake kinetics of club and Olympic champion rowers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, pp. 865-871.
64. Ingham, S. G., Whyte, G., Jones, K. and Nevill, A. (2002) Determinants of rowing performance in elite rowers. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 88, pp. 243-246.
65. Ingham, S. G., Whyte, G. P., Pedlar, C., Bailey, D. M., Dunman, N. and Nevill, A. M. (2008) Determinants of 800-m and 1500-m running performance using allometric models. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40, pp. 345-350.
66. James, D. V. B., Sandals, L. E., Draper, S. B. and Wood, D. M. (2007) Relationship between maximal oxygen uptake and oxygen uptake during treadmill middle-distance running. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, pp. 851-858.
67. Jensen, R. L. and Ebben, W. P. (2003) Kinetic analysis of complex training rest interval effect on vertical jump performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17, pp. 345-349.
68. Jones, A., Montgomery, H. E. and Woods, D. R. (2003) Human performance: A role for the ACE genotype?. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, 30, pp. 184-190.
69. Jones, A. M., Vanhatalo, A. T. and Doust, J. H. (2009) Aerobic exercise performance. Kinanthropometry and exercise physiology laboratory manual: Tests, procedures and data, pp. 271-306. Routledge, London
70. Judge, L. W., Moreau, C. and Burke, J. R. (2003) Neural adaptations with sport-specific resistance training in highly skilled athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, pp. 419-427.
71. Kansal, D. K. and Verma, S. K. (1980) Intrasportive differences in maximum oxygen uptake and body composition of Indian players in hockey and football. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 20, pp. 309-316.
72. Kerr, D. A., Ross, W. D., Norton, K., Hume, P., Kagawa, M. and Ackland, T. R. (2007) Olympic lightweight and open-class rowers possess distinctive physical and proportionality characteristics. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, pp. 43-53.
73. Kilding, A. E., Aziz, A. R. and Keh, K. C. (2006) Measuring and predicting maximal aerobic power in international-level intermittent sport athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 46, pp. 366-372.
74. Kristensen, G. O., van den Tillaar, R. and Ettema, G. J. (2006) Velocity specificity in early phase sprint training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20, pp. 833-837.
75. Kubo, K., Morimoto, M., Komuro, T., Yata, H., Tsunoda, N. Kanehisa, H. et al. (2007) Effects of plyometric and weight training on muscle-tendon complex and jump performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, pp. 1801-1810.
76. Lamont, L. S. (2005) Gender differences in amino acid use during endurance exercise. Nutrition Reviews, 63, pp. 419-422.
77. Larsson, B., Larsen, J., Modest, R., Serup, B. and Secher, N. H. (1988) A new kayak ergometer based on wind resistance. Ergonomics, 31, pp. 1701-1707.
78. Laursen, P. B., Shing, C. M., Tennant, S. C., Prentice, C. M. and Jenkins, D. G. (2003) A comparison of the cycling performance of cyclists and triathletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, pp. 411-418.
79. Lees, A. (2003) Science and the major racket sports: A review. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, pp. 707-732.
80. Lees, A. (2008) Science and the major racket sports. Science and sports: Bridging the gap, pp. 101-114. Shaker, Maastricht
81. Lees, A. and Arthur, S. (1988) An investigation into anaerobic performance of wheelchair athletes. Ergonomics, 31, pp. 1529-1538.
82. Lothian, F. and Farrally, M. (1994) A time-motion analysis of women's hockey. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 26, pp. 255-265.
83. Loy, S. F., Hoffmann, J. J. and Holland, G. J. (1995) Benefits and practical use of cross-training in sports. Sports Medicine, 19, pp. 1-8.
84. McCann, R. and Reilly, T. (1990) Physiological responses to exercise on a ski simulator. Contemporary ergonomics 1990, pp. 469-472. Taylor & Francis, London
85. Medbo, J., Mohn, A., Tabata, I., Bahr, R. and Sejersted, G. (1988) Anaerobic capacity determined by the maximal accumulated oxygen deficit. Journal of Applied Physiology, 64, pp. 50-60.
86. Moir, G., Sanders, R., Button, C. and Glaister, M. (2007) The effect of periodised resistance training on accelerative sprint performance. Sports Biomechanics, 6, pp. 285-300.
87. Moritani, T. A., Nagata, H. A., de Vries, H. A. and Muro, M. (1981) Critical power as a measure of physical work capacity and anaerobic threshold. Ergonomics, 24, pp. 339-350.
88. Morrissey, M. C., Harman, E. A. and Johnson, M. J. (1995) Resistance training modes: Specificity and effectiveness. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, pp. 648-660.
89. Movahedi, A., Sheikh, M., Hemayattalab, R. and Ashayeri, H. (2007) A practice-specificity model of arousal for achieving peak performance. Journal of Motor Behaviour, 39, pp. 457-462.
90. Murray, D. P., Brown, L. E., Zinder, S. M., Noffal, G. J., Bern, S. G. and Garnett, N. M. (2007) Effects of velocity specific training on rate of velocity development, peak power and performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21, pp. 915-922.
91. Nader, G. (2006) Concurrent strength and endurance training: From molecules to man. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, pp. 1965-1970.
92. Paavolainen, L., Hakkinen, K., Hamalainen, I., Nummela, A. and Rusko, H. (1999) Explosive strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. Journal of Applied Physiology, 86, pp. 1527-1533.
93. Pezzullo, D. J., Karas, J. and Irrgang, J. J. (1995) Functional plyometric exercises for the throwing athlete. Journal of Athletic Training, 30, pp. 22-26.
94. Prins, L., Terblanche, E. and Myburgh, K. H. (2007) Field and laboratory correlates of performance in competitive cross-country mountain bikers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, pp. 927-935.
95. Rahnama, N., Lees, A. and Reilly, T. (2006) Electromyography of selected lower-limb muscles fatigued by exercise at the intensity of soccer match-play. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 16, pp. 257-263.
96. Ramsbottom, R., Brewer, J. and Williams, C. (1988) A progressive shuttle run test to estimate maximal oxygen uptake. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 22, pp. 141-144.
97. Rankinen, T., Bray, M., Hagberg, J., Perusse, L., Roth, S. Wolfarth, B. et al. (2006) The human gene map for performance and health-related fitness phenotypes: The 2005 update. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38, pp. 1863-1888.
98. Ready, E. A. and van der Merwe, M. (1986) Physiological monitoring of the 1984 Canadian women's Olympic field hockey team. Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18, pp. 13-18.
99. Reid, M., Duffield, R., Dawson, B., Baker, J. and Crespo, M. (2008) Quantification of the physiological and performance characteristics of on-court tennis drills. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 42, pp. 146-151.
100. Reilly, T. (1997) Energetics of high-intensity exercise (soccer) with particular reference to fatigue. Journal of Sports Science, 15, pp. 257-263.
101. Reilly, T. (2007) The science of training - soccer: A scientific approach to developing strength, speed and endurance, Routledge, London
102. Reilly, T. and Bangsbo, J. (1998) Anaerobic and aerobic training. Training in sport: Applying sport science, pp. 351-409. Wiley, Chichester
103. Reilly, T., Dowzer, C. N. and Cable, N. T. (2003) The physiology of deep-water running. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, pp. 959-972.
104. Reilly, T., Kirton, E., McGrath, E. and Coulthard, S. (1993) A physiological evaluation of ski simulators. Contemporary ergonomics 1993, pp. 315-320. Taylor & Francis, London
105. Reilly, T. and Thomas, V. (1976) A motion analysis of work-rate in difference positional roles in professional football match-play. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 2, pp. 87-97.
106. Reilly, T. and White, C. (2003) Small-sided games as an alternative to interval training in soccer players. Science and football V, pp. 344-347. Routledge, London
107. 2max and the ventilatory threshold in free swimming and cycle ergometry: Comparison between triathletes and swimmers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, pp. 965-968.
108. Roffey, D. M., Byrne, N. M. and Hills, A. P. (2007) Effect of stage duration on physiological variables commonly used to determine maximal aerobic performance during cycle ergometry. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, pp. 1325-1335.
109. Russ, D. W. (2008) Active and passive tension interact to promote Akt signaling with muscle contraction. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40, pp. 88-95.
110. Saltin, B. (1973) Metabolic fundamentals in exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports, 5, pp. 137-146.
111. Santos, E. J. and Janeira, M. A. (2008) Effects of complex training on explosive strength in adolescent male basketball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22, pp. 903-909.
112. Sari-Sarraf, V., Reilly, T., Doran, D. A. and Atkinson, G. (2007) The effects of single and repeated bouts of soccer-specific exercise on salivary IgA. Archives of Oral Biology, 52, pp. 526-532.
113. Sassi, R., Reilly, T. and Impellizeri, F. (2003) A comparison of small-sided games and interval training in elite professional soccer players. Science and football V, pp. 341-343. Routledge, London
114. Schabert, E. J., Hawley, J. A., Hopkins, W. G. and Blum, H. (1999) High reliability of performance of well-trained rowers on a rowing ergometer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, pp. 627-632.
115. Schade, F., Arampatzis, A., Bruggemann, G. -P. and Komi, P. V. (2004) Comparison of the men's and the women's pole vault at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, pp. 835-842.
116. Schulte-Edelman, J. A., Davies, G. J., Kernazek, T. W. and Gerberding, E. D. (2005) The effects of plyometric training of the shoulder and elbow. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 19, pp. 129-134.
117. Smith, M. S., Dyson, R. J., Hale, T. and Janaway, L. (2000) Development of a boxing dynamometer and its punch force discrimination efficacy. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, pp. 445-450.
118. Spencer, M., Lawrence, S., Rechichi, C., Bishop, D., Dawson, B. and Goodman, C. (2004) Time-motion analysis of elite field hockey, with special reference to repeated-sprint activity. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, pp. 843-850.
119. Strøyer, J., Hansen, L. and Klausen, K. (2004) Physiological profile and activity pattern of young soccer players during match play. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36, pp. 168-174.
120. Svensson, M. and Drust, B. (2005) Testing soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23, pp. 601-618.
121. Swaine, I. and Reilly, T. (1983) The freely chosen swimming stroke rate in a maximal swim and on a biokinetic swim bench. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 15, pp. 370-375.
122. Swaine, I. L. and Winter, E. M. (1999) Comparison of cardiopulmonary responses to two types of dry-land upper-body exercise modes in competitive swimmers. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 80, pp. 588-590.
123. 2max between cycling, running and swimming. Sports Medicine, 18, pp. 330-339.
124. Tanner, J. M. (1964) The physique of the Olympic athlete, Allen & Unwin, London
125. Tarnopolsky, M. A. (2000) Gender differences in substrate metabolism during endurance exercise. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 25, pp. 312-327.
126. Terzis, G., Karampatsos, G. and Georgiadis, G. (2007) Neuromuscular control and performance in shot-put athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 47, pp. 284-290.
127. Toussaint, H. B., Wakayoshi, K., Hollander, P. A. and Ogita, F. (1998) Simulated front crawl swimming performance related to critical speed and critical power. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, pp. 144-151.
128. Trzaskoma, Z., Wit, A., Iskra, L. and Karpilowski, B. (1989) Application of a pendulum training simulator in training strength of lower extremities muscles. Biology of Sport, 6, pp. 214-220.
129. Vangelakoudi, A., Vogiatzis, I. and Geladas, N. (2007) Anaerobic capacity, isometric endurance, and Laser sailing performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, pp. 1095-1100.
130. Wackerhage, H., Atherton, P. J., Babraj, J. and Smith, K. (2005) Selective activation of AMPK-PGC1a or PKB-TSC2-mTOR signaling can explain specific adaptive responses to endurance or resistance training-like electrical muscle stimulation. FASEB Journal, 19, pp. 786-788.
131. Wackerhage, H. and Woods, N. M. (2002) Exercise-induced signal transduction and gene regulation in skeletal muscle. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 1, pp. 103-114.
132. Ward-Smith, A. J. and Radford, P. F. (2000) Energy conversion rates during sprinting with and emphasis on the performance of female athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, pp. 835-843.
133. Wilk, K. E., Voight, M. L., Keirns, M. A., Gambetta, V., Andrews, J. R. and Dillman, C. J. (1993) Stretch-shortening drills for the upper extremity: Theory and clinical application. Journal of Orthopedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 17, pp. 225-239.
134. Winter, E. M., Jones, A. M., Davison, R. C. R., Bromley, P. D. and Mercer, T. M. (2007) Sport and exercise physiology testing guidelines, Vol. One: Sport testing, Routledge, London