Gender and the trans-Tasman world of labour: Transnational and comparative histories

Labour History

Volumn 95, Issue , 2008, Pages

  Frances, Raelene ^a   Nolan, Melanie ^b  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b Department of History   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 67649416149     PISSN: 00236942     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (190)

1. Eric Fry (ed.), Common Cause: Essays in Australian and New Zealand Labour History, Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, Wellington, 1986. There had been little work on Australasia in the previous 40 years.
2. See Rollo Arnold, 'Some Australasian aspects of New Zealand life, 1890-1913', New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 4, no. 1, 1970, pp. 54-76
3. Ian Reid, Fiction and the Great Depression: Australia and New Zealand 1930-1950, Edward Arnold, London, 1979,
4. and Donald Dennon, Settler Capitalism: The Dynamics of Dependent Development in the Southern Hemisphere, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1983.
5. M. McCaskill, 'The Tasman connection: Aspects of Australian-New Zealand relations', Australian Geographical Studies, no. 20, April 1982, p. 12. Most of the articles in Raelene Frances and Bruce Scates (eds), Women, Work and the Labour Movement in Australia and Aotearoa/New Zealand (special issue of Labour History, [no. 61], November, 1991), Australian Society for the Study of Labour History, Sydney, 1991, were about one side of the Tasman or the other. More recent work is transnational
6. James E. Bennett, The 1890 Maritime Strike and the Triangular Relationship between Britain, Australia and New Zealand, MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 1986
7. Peter J. Coleman, Progressivism and the World of Reform: New Zealand and the Origins of the American Welfare State, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, 1987
8. Bruce Scates, 'Mobilising manhood: Gender and the Great Strike of 1890 in Australia and New Zealand', Gender and History, vol. 9, no. 2, August 1997, pp. 285-310
9. James Ewan Bennett, Redeeming the Imagination: A Trans-National History of Australia and Aotearoa/New Zealand, 1890-1944, PhD thesis, University of Melbourne, 1997 and his subsequent publication, 'Rats and Revolutionaries': The Labour Movement in Australia and New Zealand, 1890-1940, University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2004
10. Melanie Nolan, 'Pacific currents in the Tasman: Comparative and transnational perspectives on New Zealand Labour History', Labour History, no. 88, May 2005, pp. 233-41
11. Fran Shor, 'Left Labor agitators in the Pacific Rim o? the early Twentieth Century', International Labor and Working-Class History, no. 67, Spring 2005, pp. 148-63
12. S. K. Harford, A Trans-Tasman Community: Organisational Links Between the ACTU and NZFOL/NZCTU, 1970-90, MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2006.
13. Lionel Frost, The New Urban Frontier: Urbanisation and City-Building in Australasia and the American West before 1910, University of New South Wales Press, Kensington, NSW, 1991.
14. Neville Kirk, Comrades and Cousins: Globalization, Workers and Labour Markets in Britain, the USA and Australia from the 1880 to 1914, Merlin Press, London, 2003, p. 6.
15. Gary Hawke, 'Australian and New Zealand economic development from about 1890 to 1940', in Keith Sinclair (ed.), Tasman Relations: New Zealand and Australia, 1788-1988, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1987, pp. 104-23.
16. Rollo Arnold, 'The Australasian peoples and their world, 1888-1915', in Sinclair (ed.), Tasman Relations, pp. 52-70. G.A. Carmichael (ed.), Trans-Tasman Migration:TRends, Causes and Consequences, Australian Government Publishing Service for the Bureau of Immigration Research, Canberra, 1993.
17. Bruce Scates, 'Gender, household and community politics: The maritime strike in Australia and New Zealand', in J. Hagan and A. Wells (eds), The Maritime Strike: A Centennial Retrospective: Essays in Honour of E.C. Fry, Five Islands Press, Sydney, 1992.
18. Shaun Goldfinch and Philippa Mein Smith, 'Compulsory arbitration and the Australasian model of state development: Policy transfer, learning, and innovation', Journal of Policy History, vol. 18, no. 4, 2006, pp. 419-45.
19. Donald Denoon, Philippa Mein Smith and Marvin Wyndham, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, Blackwell, Oxford, 2000.
20. Melanie Nolan, 'The high tide of a labor market system: The Australasian male breadwinner model', Labor and Industry, vol. 13, no. 3, April 2003, pp. 73-92,
21. and Melanie Nolan, 'The state changing its mind? Australian and New Zealand governments' postwar policy on married women's paid employment', in Patricia Grimshaw, John Murphy and Belinda Robert (eds), Double Shift: Working Mothers and Social Change in Australia, Circa, Melbourne Publishing Group, Melbourne, 2005, pp. 153-76.
22. Raelene Frances, 'One hundred years of women's wage-fixing', Journal of Interdisciplinary Gender Studies, vol. 5, no. 2, December 2000, pp. 84-93.
23. See, for example, on equal pay: Roberta Nicholls, 'The PSC and the equal pay campaign', in Alan Henderson (ed.), The Quest for Efficiency: The Origins of the State Services Commission, State Services Commission, Wellington, 1990, pp. 247-79
24. Greg Patmore, Australian Labour History, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne, 1991, pp. 161-83.
25. Or overviews: Edna Ryan and Ann Conlon, Gentle Invaders: Australian Women at Work 1788-1974, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne, 1975
26. Nancy M. Taylor, New Zealand People at War: Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War, 1939-1945: The Home Front, Historical Publications Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1986, p. 1293
27. A.D. Spaull, 'Equal pay for women teachers and the New South Wales Teachers' Federation', in A.D. Spaull (ed.), Australian Teachers: From Colonial Schoolmasters to Militant Professionals, Macmillan, Melbourne, 1977, pp. 276-89
28. J.A. Scutt, 'Inequality before the law. gender, arbitratio? and wages', in Kay Saunders and Raymond Evans (eds), Gender Relations in Australia: Domination and Negotiation, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Sydney, 1992, pp. 266-86
29. Melanie Nolan, Breadwinning: New Zealand Women and the State, Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, 2000.
30. John Rickard, 'The anti-sweating movement in Britain and Victoria: The politics of empire and social reform', Historical Studies, vol. 18, 1979, pp. 582-97.
31. See Ulla Wikander, Alice Kessler-Harris and Jane Lewis (eds), Protecting Women: Labor Legislation in Europe, the United States, and Australia, 1880-1920, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1995.
32. Frances, 'One hundred years of women's wage-fixing', pp. 84-93.
33. The exception is a legislative overview, J. Nieuwenhuysen and J. Hicks, 'Equal pay for women in Australia and New Zealand', in Barrie O. Pettman (ed.), Equal Pay for Women. Progress and Problems for Women in Seven Countries, MCB Books, Bradford, 1975, pp. 63-98.
34. Margaret Corner, No Easy Victory: Towards Equal Pay for Women in the Government Service 1890-1960, NZPSA, Wellington, 1988.
35. Nancy Taylor, The Home Front, vol. 2: NZ People at War, Official History of NZ in the Second World War, 1939-45, Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1986, p. 1075.
36. Nicholls, 'The PSC and the equal pay campaign', pp. 247-79.
37. Ryan and Conlon, Gentle Invaders, especially 'The elusive equal pay 1951-74', pp. 145-75
38. Greg Patmore, 'Gender and work: Feminist labour historiography and equal pay in Australia', in Australian Labour History, Longman Cheshire, Sydney, 1991, pp. 161-83
39. Zeldo D'Aprano, Kath Williams: The Unions and the Fight for Equal Pay, Spinifex, Melbourne, 2001.
40. David Pearson, 'Reconnecting the antipodes: A reflective note', Thesis Eleven, no. 82, August 2005, p. 83.
41. Richard Mitchell, 'State systems of conciliation and arbitration: The legal origins of the Australasian model', in Stuart Macintyre and Richard Mitchell (eds), Foundations of Arbitration: The Origins and Effects of State Compulsory Arbitration 1890-1914, Melbourne, 1989, pp. 74-103.
42. Lisa Davies with Natalie Jackson, Women's Labour Force Participation in New Zealand: The Past 100 Years, Social Policy Agency, Department of Social Welfare, Wellington, 1993.
43. Nolan, Breadwinning, chapter 7.
44. G. Kaplan, The Meagre Harvest: The Australian Women's Movement 1950s-1990s, Allen & Unwin, St Leonards, 1996.
45. Ann Curthoys and Marilyn Lake (eds), Connected Worlds: History in Trans-National Perspective, ANU E Press, Canberra, 2006.
46. For New Zealand: Peggy Koopman-Boyden and Claudia Scott, The Family and Government Policy in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1984
47. Nolan, Breadwinning
48. Helen May, Politics in the Playground: The World of Early Childhood in Postwar New Zealand, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2001.
49. For Australia: Ryan and Conlon, Gentle Invaders
50. Cora V. Baldock and Bettina Cass (eds), Women, Social Welfare and the State in Australia, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1988 (first published 1983).
51. Raelene Frances, Lin?a Keeley and Joan Sangster, 'Women's work in Australia and Canada, 1880-1980', Labour History, no. 71, 1996, pp. 54-89
52. and Labour/Le Travail, no. 38, Fall 1996, pp. 54-89.
53. Frances, 'One hundred years of women's wage-fixing', pp. 84-93.
54. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 1997, New York and Oxford, 1997, pp. 39, 149-54.
55. Erik Olssen and Len Richardson, 'The New Zealand labour movement, 1880-1920' in Eric Fry (ed.), Common Cause, pp. 1-2.
56. See Bennett, Rats and Revolutionaries.
57. Wally Seccombe, Weathering the Storm: Working-Class Families From the Industrial Revolution to the Fertility Decline, Verso Press, London, 1993
58. Colin Creighton, 'The rise of the male breadwinner family: A reappraisal', Comparative Studies in Society and History: An International Quarterly, vol. 38, no. 2, April, 1996, pp. 310-37
59. Sara Horrell and Jane Humphries, 'The origins and expansion of the male breadwinner family: The case of nineteenth century Britain', International Review of Social History, vol. 42, 1997, pp. 25-64
60. A. Janssens, 'The rise and decline of the male breadwinner family? an overview of the debate', International Review of Social History, vol. 42, 1997, pp. 1-23
61. Anna Clark, 'The new Poor Law and the breadwinner wage: Contrasting assumptions', Journal of Social History, vol. 34, no. 2, 2000, pp. 261-81.
62. As Alice Kessler-Harris points out, non-western historiography has a different chronology and complexity
63. Alice Kessler-Harris, 'Reframing the history of women's wage labor: challenges of a global perspective', Journal of Women's History, vol. 15, no. 4, 2004, pp. 186-206.
64. Anne Summers, Damned Whores and God's Police, Penguin, Ringwood, 1975, pp. 57-68
65. Jock Phillips, A Man's Country? The Image of the Pakeha Male: A History, Penguin Books, Auckland, 1987, p. 263.
66. See also Patricia Grimshaw, 'Tasman sisters: Lives of the "second sex"', in Sinclair (ed.), Tasman Relations, pp. 224-45.
67. John Gould, The Rake's Progress? The New Zealand Economy Since 1945, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1982, p. 93.
68. Miriam Dixson, The Real Matilda: Women and Identity in Australia, 1788-1975, Penguin Books, Melbourne, 1976, p. 11.
69. See also Summers, Damned Whores and God's Police, pp. 425-7.
70. Charles Bergquist, Labor in Latin America: Comparative Essays on Chile, Argentina, Venezuela and Colombia, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1986.
71. Francis G. Castles, The Working Class and Welfare: Reflections on the Political Development of the Welfare State in Australia and New Zealand, 1890-1980, Allen and Unwin, Wellington, 1985, pp.82-8.
72. See also W.H. Oliver, 'Social policy in the Liberal period', New Zealand Journal of History, vol. 13, no. 1, April 1979, pp. 32-3. Oliver argues that economic policy (industrial conditions and relations, unemployment and public works) was social (welfare) policy.
73. W.J. Waters, 'Australian Labor's full employment objective, 1942-5', in Jill Roe (ed.), Social Policy in Australia: Some Perspectives 1901-25, Cassell, Sydney, 1976, p. 242
74. Walter Nash, New Zealand: A Working Democracy, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd, London, 1944, p. 230.
75. A. Dalziell, Evatt: The Enigma, Landsdowne Press, Melbourne, 1967, pp. 41-4
76. Keith Sinclair, Walter Nash, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1976, pp. 238-41.
77. H. V. Evatt, Australia in World Affairs, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1946 pp. 40-1
78. A. Reouf, Let Justice be Done: The Foreign Policy of Dr H.W. Evatt, University of Queensland Press, St Lucia, 1983, pp. 118-21.
79. J. Thorn, Peter Fraser: New Zealand Wartime Prime Minister, Odhams Press Ltd, London, 1952, p. 236.
80. W. Rosenberg, 'Full Employment: The Fulcrum of Social Welfare', in A.D. Trlin (ed.), Social Welfare and New Zealand Society, Methuen, Wellington, 1977, pp. 45-60.
81. Michael Gilding, The Making and Breaking of the Australian Family, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1991.
82. 'Women in the labour force', International Labour Review, vol. 77, March 1958, p. 260, Table III, 'Married women in the labour force'.
83. John Murphy, 'Shaping the Cold War family: Politics, domesticity and policy interventions in the 1950s', Australian Historical Studies, vol. 26, no. 105, October 1995, pp. 544-67
84. John Murphy, 'Social policy and the family' in Scott Prasser, J. R. Nethercote, John Warhurst (eds), The Menzies Era: A Reappraisal of Government, Politics and Policy, Hale & Iremonger, Sydney 1995, pp. 228-38.
85. John Murphy, 'Breadwinning: Accounts of work and family life in the 1950s', Labour and Industry, vol. 12, no. 3, April 2002, p. 59.
86. Jock Phillips, A Man's Country?, p. 263.
87. Frances, Kealey and Sangster, 'Women and wage labour in Australia and Canada, 1880-1990', pp. 54-89.
88. R.G. Gregory and R.C. Duncan, 'Segmented labour market theories and the Australian experience of equal pay for women', Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, vol. 3, 1981, pp. 403-28
89. R.G. Gregory and V. Ho, 'Equal pay and comparable worth: What can the US learn from the Australian experience?', Discussion Paper No. 123, Centre for Economic Policy Research, Australian National University, Canberra, 1985
90. R.G. Gregory, A. Daly and V. Ho, 'A Tale of Two Countries: Equal Pay for Women in Australia and Britain', Discussion Paper No. 147, Centre for Economic Policy Research, Australian National University, Canberra, 1986
91. R.G. Gregory, R. Anstie and V. Ho, 'Women's pay in Australia, Great Britain, and the United States: The role of laws, regulations and human capital', in R.T. Michael, H.I. O'Farrell and B.O'Farrell (eds), Pay Equity Empirical Enquiries, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1989
92. R.G. Gregory and A. Daly, 'Can economic theory explain why Australian women are paid so well relative to their United States counterparts?', in S. Willborn (ed.), Women's Wages: Stability and Change in Six Industrial Countries, International Review of Comparative Public Policy, vol. 3, JAI Press, Greenwich, Connecticut, 1991
93. R.G. Gregory, 'Labour market institutions and the gender pay ratio', Australian Economic Review, vol. 32, 1999, pp. 272-8.
94. Suzanne Hammond and Raymond Harbridge, 'The impact of the Employment Contracts Act on women at work,' New Zealand Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 18, no, 1, 1993, pp. 15-30.
95. National Distribution Union (NDU), Under Contract: A Brief Report on the Use of th? Employment Contracts Act in the Retail Sector, NDU, Wellington, 1993.
96. See also: National Distribution Union, Shortchanged: Retail Workers and the ECA, NDU, Auckland, 1996.
97. 'Myth and reality: The effect of the Employment Contracts Act on nurses in New Zealand (1991-1993)', paper presented by the NZ Nurses Organisation at the International Council of Nurses Congress, Madrid, June 1993.
98. Raymond Harbridge, Service Workers Union Women Members Survey, Wellington, September 1993.
99. For a detailed analysis of the gender wage gap, see Sylvia Dixon, 'Pay inequality between men and women in New Zealand', Occasional Paper 2000/1, September 2000, Labour Market Policy Group, New Zealand Department of Labour, esp. pp. 37-40.
100. See also Closing the Gap, a forum on the gender pay gap, Council of Trade Unions, Wellington, 1997. It should be noted, however, that the gap in NZ subsequently narrowed, a shift explained by Sylvia Dixon in terms of increases in the human capital of women, relative to men, and changes in the employment distribution of men and women.
101. See Sylvia Dixon, 'Understanding reductions in the gender wage differential 1997-2003', New Zealand Conference on Pay and Employment Equity for Women, Wellington, 2004.
102. Ask the Women! A Survey of Women's Opinions on Economic, Social and Industrial Policy, NZ Council of Trade Unions, May 1993.
103. Gillian Whitehouse and Betty Frino, 'Women, wages and industrial agreements', [Australian Journal of Labour Economics, vol. 6, no. 4, December 2003, pp. 579-96.
104. Cf. Anne Daly, Akira Kawajuchi, Xin Meng and Karen Mumford's article, 'The gender wage gap in four countries', The Economic Record, vol. 82, no. 257, June 2006, pp. 165-76, which does not disaggregate the gap according to bargaining streams, and so finds little change in the gap over the same period. This is because the changes in the individual and collective bargaining outcomes are offset by the outcomes for the award stream. For other contributions on the impact of enterprise bargaining on female workers
105. see G. Whitehouse, 'Recent trends in pay equity: Beyond the aggregate statistics', Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 43, 2001, pp. 66-78
106. Laura Bennett, 'Women and enterprise bargaining', Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 36, 1994, pp. 191-213
107. Philippa Hall and Di Fruin, 'Gender aspects of enterprise bargaining: the good, the bad and the ugly', in D.E. Morgan (ed.), Dimensions of Enterprise Bargaining and Organisational Relations, UNSW Studies in Australian Industrial Relations, Monograph no. 36, Industrial Relations Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Kensington, 1994
108. S. Hammond, 'Equity under Enterprise Bargaining', ACIRRT Working Paper No. 33, University of Sydney, 1994
109. Kathryn Heiler, Betty Arsovska and Richard Hall, 'Good and bad bargaining for women: Do unions make a difference?', Labour and Industry, vol. 10, 1999, pp. 101-27
110. C. Reiman, 'Has Enterprise Bargaining Affected the Gender Wage Gap in Australia?', in C. Leggett, C. Provis, R. Shanahan, E. Stern, G. Treuren and P. Wright (eds), Current Research in Industrial Relations, AIRAANZ 99, vol. 2: Non-refereed papers, AIRAANZ, 1991, pp. 205-16.
111. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Social Trends 2005. According to the ABS, the gap was 78 per cent in 1974
112. 91 per cent in 1978
113. 94 per cent in 1994 and 92 per cent in 2004.
114. For example, Ryan and Conlon, Gentle Invaders
115. Jenny Lee, 'A redivision of labour: Victoria's Wages Boards in action, 1896-1903', Australian Historical Studies, vol. 22, no. 88, April 1987, pp. 353-72
116. Stephen Robertson, 'Women Workers and the New Zealand Arbitration Court, 1894-1920', in Raelene Frances and Bruce Scates (eds), Women, Work and the Labour Movement in Australia and Aotearoa/New Zealand, pp. 30-41.
117. Melanie Nolan and Pat Walsh, 'Labour's leg iron? assessing trade unions and arbitration in New Zealand', in Pat Walsh (ed.), Trade Unions, Work and Society: The Centenary of the Arbitration System, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1994, pp. 21-2
118. Peter Brosnan and Moira Wilson, The Historical Structuring of the Labour Market, Industrial Relations Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 1989, p. 33.
119. Using international comparisons, F.D. Blau and L.M. Kahn, The Gender Earnings Gap: Some International Evidence, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series, No. 4224, 2001, p. 2.
120. Gillian Whitehouse, 'Legislation and labour market gender inequality: An analysis of OECD countries', Work, Employment and Society, vol. 6, no. 1, 1992, pp. 65-86.
121. Diane Kirkby, 'Arbitration and the fight for economic justice', in Stuart Macintyre and Richard Mitchell (eds), Foundations of Arbitration, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1989, pp. 334-51.
122. Compare, Sue Iverson, 'How low pay for women has come about', Broadsheet, no. 146, January/February 1987, pp. 38-40 with the following
123. Martha Coleman, 'Compulsory arbitration: An essential protection for women workers', Women's Studies Association Conference Papers, 1989, pp. 343-46.
124. Margaret Wilson, 'Employment Equity Act 1990: A case study in women's political influence, 1984-90', in John Deeks and Nick Perry (eds), Controlling Interests: Business, the State and Society in New Zealand, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1992, pp. 16-35
125. Patricia Sarr, Out of the Chorus Line: The Progress of Women in New Zealand Unions, New Zealand Council of Trade Unions (NZCTU), Wellington, 1992
126. and Shifting Sands: Women in New Zealand Unions 1993, NZCTU, Wellington, 1993
127. For Australia, see Frances, 'One hundred years of women's paid labour'
128. Jocelynne A. Scutt, The struggle for equal pay and pay equity in Australia, PhD thesis, University of New South Wales, 2007.
129. Alison Preston and Geoff Crockett, 'State of pay: Female relative earnings in Australia', Labour and Industry, vol. 10, no. 2, December 1999, pp. 129-46.
130. Neville Kirk, Comrades and Cousins, p. 6.
131. Stuart Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia, vol. 4, The Succeeding Age 1901-1942, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1997, pp. 86-7.
132. Kirk, Comrades and Cousins, p. 6.
133. See, for example, Raelene Frances, The Politics of Work: Gender and Labour in Victoria, 1880-1940, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 1993, pp. 79, 91, 95-6, 124, 148.
134. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 1997, New York and Oxford, 1997, pp. 39. For a discussion of the report
135. see Pamela Bone, 'Capitalism Should Be Feminised', The Age, Friday 13 June 1997, p. 3.
136. Graeme Dunstall, 'The social pattern', in W.H. Oliver and B.R. Williams (eds), The Oxford History of New Zealand, Wellington, 1981, pp. 396-429.
137. Raelene Frances, 'Shifting barriers: Twentieth century women's labour patterns' in Kay Saunders and Raymond Evans (eds), Gender Relations in Australia: Domination and Negotiation, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Sydney, 1992, pp. 246-61
138. Denoon, Mein Smith, Wyndham, A History of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, pp. 409-424.
139. New Zealand Statistics, 2001. It is estimated that semi-professionals made up 6.7 per cent of the urban occupational structure in 1901.
140. Erik Olssen and Maureen Hickey, Class and Occupation: The New Zealand Reality, Otago University Press, Dunedin, 2005, pp. 160-7.
141. New Zealand Statistics, 2001.
142. Graeme Davison, 'Professions' in Graeme Davison, John Hirst and Stuart Macintyre (eds), The Oxford Companion to Australian History, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1998, p. 529
143. Maria Nugent, Women's Employment and Professionalism in Australia: Histories, Themes and Places, Report prepared for the Australian Heritage Commission, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 2002
144. The Human Rights Commission (HRC) and the New Zealand Centre for Women and Leadership (NZCWL), New Zealand Census of Women's Participation in Governance and Professional Life, HRC and NZCWL, Wellington, June, 2004.
145. Paul Boreham, Alec Pemberton, Paul Wilson (eds), The Professions in Australia: A Critical Appraisal, University of Queensland Press, St Lucia, Queensland, 1976. For a discussion of the professionalism in England,
146. see Harold Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society: England Since 1880, Routledge, London and New York, 1989.
147. John Deeks, Jane Parker, Rose Ryan, Labour and Employment Relations in New Zealand, Longman Paul, Auckland, 1994
148. Melanie Nolan and Shaun Ryan, 'Transforming unionism by organising? an examination of the gender revolution in New Zealand trade unionism since 1975', Labour History, no. 84, May 2003, pp. 89-111
149. Braham Dabscheck, The Struggle for Australian Industrial Relations, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1995
150. David Peetz, Unions in a Contrary World: The Future of the Australian Trade Union Movement, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.
151. Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) President Hawke, Address to the Australian Public Service Federation (APSF) Conference Adelaide, October 1969.
152. Bob Hawke, as President-elect of the ACTU, spoke to the 1969 ACSPA conference. It was widely reported
153. see The Australian, 5 & 18 December 1969
154. Sydney Morning Herald, 4 & 5 December 1969
155. Melbourne Age, 4 & 5 December 1969
156. Sun, 3 & 5 December 1969
157. Financial Review, 5 December 1969
158. Newsday, 3 December 1969. His other speeches on 'the question of "organic unity"' include his opening address to the ACTU Congress 15 September 1975, Z140 Box 3, Noel Butlin Archives Centre (NBAC), Australian National University (ANU), Canberra.
159. Meeting 21 August 1975, Joint Working Party notes, Z140 Box 3, NBAC, ANU, Canberra. The ACSPA Federal Executive Meeting in December 1969 authorised the federal officers and its representative on the Joint Committee to commence negotiations but regular formal discussions of the Joint Working Party only commenced from 1970. Meeting of Joint Committee of National Employees Council (ACTU-ACSPA-CCPS), 15 May 1970. The APSF was not represented until 18 February 1971: Joint Committee of National Employees Councils, Z140 Box 3, NBAC, ANU, Canberra.
160. 'Statement on behalf of ACSPA by P.W. Reilly, Federal President to the Joint Meeting of Executives of the Australian Council of Trade Unions and the Australian Council of Salaried and Professional Association to discuss Organic Unity within the Australian Trade Union Movement', Melbourne, 20 May 1974, Z140 Box 3, NBAC, ANU, Canberra.
161. Formal decision Federal Executive 31 July 1973, which was sent to ACTU, NBAC, ANU, Canberra.
162. ACSPA Minutes. Z140 boxes 11-20, NBAC, ANU, Canberra.
163. See discussion on the changing role of the white-collar workers in Australian society, 'Statement on behalf of ACSPA by P.W. Reilly'.
164. New Zealand Council of Trade Unions, Organizing Women Workers: Mobilizing Women Workers: Mobilizing Women Workers Using the Organizing Model, NZCTU, Wellington, 1995.
165. Nolan and Ryan, 'Transforming unionism by organising?', pp. 89-111.
166. Mrs E. Bell, President of the Clerical Workers Union, address to the Federation of Labour (NZFOL) annual conference in 1969 on women's inactivity: 'Women in trade unions: New Zealand', Labour and Employment Gazette, vol. xix, no. 3, August 1969, p. 12.
167. H. Roth, Trade Unions in New Zealand. Past and Present, Reed Education, Wellington, 1973, p. 130.
168. K.E. Threadwell, Women in Trade Unions, unpublished research paper, NZFOL, Wellington 1977, pp. 7-8.
169. See also 'Women and New Zealand trade unions', NZFOL Bulletin, September 1976 and The Role of Women in The Distribution Industry, Report by the Distribution Council August 1976, Distribution Council, Wellington 1976.
170. Melanie Nolan, 'Employment Organisations,' in Anne Else (ed.), Women Together: A History of Women's Organisations in New Zealand Nga Ropu Wahine o te Motu, Daphne Brassell, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1993, pp. 195-207. The statistical outline of this transformation has been well documented in a series of quantitative union surveys in the 1990s.
171. See, Sarr, Out of the Chorus Line
172. and Anne Boyd, Moving Mountains: The Progress of Women in New Zealand Unions 1997, CTU, Wellington, 1997.
173. Angela Foulkes, interview by Shaun Ryan, September/October 1999, Oral History Archives, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington.
174. Dominion Post, 4 August 2007.
175. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Employee Earnings, benefits and Trade Union Membership August 2006.
176. George succeeded Martin Ferguson in 1996. For an account of her career to 1998
177. see Brad Norington, Jennie George, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1998.
178. Jude Elton, 'Making democratic unions: From policy to practice', in Barbara Pocock (ed.), Strife: Sex and Politics in Labour Unions, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1997, pp. 109-27.
179. New Zealand Standard, 16 November 1944, p. 5
180. Peter Sekuless, Jessie Street: A Rewarding but Unrewarded Life, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 1978, p. 194
181. Margaret Long interviewed by Melanie Nolan, Otaki, New Zealand, 5 February 1992 and 19 June 2003.
182. Flo Humpheries represented the New Zealand Federation of Labour?at an Asian Women's Conference in Tokyo in 1971 and Sonja Davies was involved in the international Working Women's Charter movement in the 1970s: New Zealand Federation of Labour Bulletin, vol. 6, no, 8, July 1971
183. and Sonja Davies, Bread and Roses: Her Story, Australia and New Zealand Book Co. Pty Ltd with Fraser Books, Auckland, 1984
184. Frank Farrell, International Socialism and Australian Labour: The Left in Australia, 1919-1939, Hale & Iremonger, Sydney, 1981.
185. Rollo Arnold, 'The dynamics and quality of trans-Tasman migration 1885-1910', Australian Economic History Review, vol. 26, no. 1, 1986, p. 4.
186. Ibid., p. 1. W.D. Borrie, 'The peopling of Australasian 1788-1988: The common heritage', in Keith Sinclair (ed.), Tasman Relations: New Zealand and Australia, 1788-1988, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1988, Table 1, p. 206.
187. See Raelene Frances, Selling Sex: A Hidden History of Prostitution, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, 2007.
188. Entries for some of these women can be found in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, vols 1-5, Auckland University Press, available online: http://www.dnzb.govt.nz/ and the Australian Dictionary of Biography, vols 7-12, Melbourne University Press, available online: http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/
189. Barry Gustafson, From the Cradle to the Grave: A Biography of Michael Joseph Savage, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1988, p. 294. Marian Sawer has shown the usefulness of tracking individual trans-Tasman connections to tease out broader movements.
190. See, Marian Sawer, The Ethical State? Social Liberalism in Australia, Melbourne University Pfress, Melbourne, 2003.