The new poor law and the breadwinner wage: Contrasting assumptions

Journal of Social History

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 261-281

  Clark, Anna ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0042685120     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2000.0138     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, English Poor Law Policy (London, 1910) p. 100.
2. Pat Thane, "Women and the Poor Law in Victorian and Edwardian England," History Workshop 5 (1976): 29. To be sure, Thane, like the Webbs, points out the contradictions in poor law policy toward women workers.
3. Lynn Lees, The Solidarities of Strangers: the English Poor Laws and the People, 1700-1948 (New York, 1997) p. 144.
4. Sonya Rose, Limited Livelihoods. Gender and class in nineteenth-century England (Berkeley, 1992) pp. 51-55.
5. This point has been made previously in Anna Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the Working Class in Britain (Berkeley, 1995) pp. 187-192, but that chapter concentrates on the reaction of working men and women to the New Poor Law. In this article, I will prove the point more extensively from the point of view of poor law officials, and extend the argument through the late nineteenth century.
6. For the long debate on the breadwinner wage, see Jane Humphries, "Class Struggle and the Persistence of the Working-class Family," Cambridge Journal of Economics 1 (1977): 241-48; Wally Seccombe, "Patriarchy Stabilized: the Construction of the Male Breadwinner Norm in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 11 (1986): 65; Sonya O. Rose, "Gender Antagonism and Class Conflict: Exclusionary Strategies of Male Trade Unionists in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 13 (1988): 202; Rose, Limited Livelihoods, pp. 17, 128-32; Harold Benenson, "The Family Wage and Working Women's Consciousness in Britain, 1880-1914," Politics and Society 19 (1991): 71-108; S. Horrell and Jane Humphries, "The origins and expansion of the male breadwinner family: the case of nineteenth century Britain," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 25-64; A. Janssens, "The Rise and Decline of the male breadwinner family? An overview of the debate," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 1-23.
7. For the long debate on the breadwinner wage, see Jane Humphries, "Class Struggle and the Persistence of the Working-class Family," Cambridge Journal of Economics 1 (1977): 241-48; Wally Seccombe, "Patriarchy Stabilized: the Construction of the Male Breadwinner Norm in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 11 (1986): 65; Sonya O. Rose, "Gender Antagonism and Class Conflict: Exclusionary Strategies of Male Trade Unionists in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 13 (1988): 202; Rose, Limited Livelihoods, pp. 17, 128-32; Harold Benenson, "The Family Wage and Working Women's Consciousness in Britain, 1880-1914," Politics and Society 19 (1991): 71-108; S. Horrell and Jane Humphries, "The origins and expansion of the male breadwinner family: the case of nineteenth century Britain," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 25-64; A. Janssens, "The Rise and Decline of the male breadwinner family? An overview of the debate," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 1-23.
8. For the long debate on the breadwinner wage, see Jane Humphries, "Class Struggle and the Persistence of the Working-class Family," Cambridge Journal of Economics 1 (1977): 241-48; Wally Seccombe, "Patriarchy Stabilized: the Construction of the Male Breadwinner Norm in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 11 (1986): 65; Sonya O. Rose, "Gender Antagonism and Class Conflict: Exclusionary Strategies of Male Trade Unionists in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 13 (1988): 202; Rose, Limited Livelihoods, pp. 17, 128-32; Harold Benenson, "The Family Wage and Working Women's Consciousness in Britain, 1880-1914," Politics and Society 19 (1991): 71-108; S. Horrell and Jane Humphries, "The origins and expansion of the male breadwinner family: the case of nineteenth century Britain," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 25-64; A. Janssens, "The Rise and Decline of the male breadwinner family? An overview of the debate," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 1-23.
9. For the long debate on the breadwinner wage, see Jane Humphries, "Class Struggle and the Persistence of the Working-class Family," Cambridge Journal of Economics 1 (1977): 241-48; Wally Seccombe, "Patriarchy Stabilized: the Construction of the Male Breadwinner Norm in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 11 (1986): 65; Sonya O. Rose, "Gender Antagonism and Class Conflict: Exclusionary Strategies of Male Trade Unionists in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 13 (1988): 202; Rose, Limited Livelihoods, pp. 17, 128-32; Harold Benenson, "The Family Wage and Working Women's Consciousness in Britain, 1880-1914," Politics and Society 19 (1991): 71-108; S. Horrell and Jane Humphries, "The origins and expansion of the male breadwinner family: the case of nineteenth century Britain," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 25-64; A. Janssens, "The Rise and Decline of the male breadwinner family? An overview of the debate," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 1-23.
10. For the long debate on the breadwinner wage, see Jane Humphries, "Class Struggle and the Persistence of the Working-class Family," Cambridge Journal of Economics 1 (1977): 241-48; Wally Seccombe, "Patriarchy Stabilized: the Construction of the Male Breadwinner Norm in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 11 (1986): 65; Sonya O. Rose, "Gender Antagonism and Class Conflict: Exclusionary Strategies of Male Trade Unionists in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 13 (1988): 202; Rose, Limited Livelihoods, pp. 17, 128-32; Harold Benenson, "The Family Wage and Working Women's Consciousness in Britain, 1880-1914," Politics and Society 19 (1991): 71-108; S. Horrell and Jane Humphries, "The origins and expansion of the male breadwinner family: the case of nineteenth century Britain," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 25-64; A. Janssens, "The Rise and Decline of the male breadwinner family? An overview of the debate," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 1-23.
11. For the long debate on the breadwinner wage, see Jane Humphries, "Class Struggle and the Persistence of the Working-class Family," Cambridge Journal of Economics 1 (1977): 241-48; Wally Seccombe, "Patriarchy Stabilized: the Construction of the Male Breadwinner Norm in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 11 (1986): 65; Sonya O. Rose, "Gender Antagonism and Class Conflict: Exclusionary Strategies of Male Trade Unionists in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 13 (1988): 202; Rose, Limited Livelihoods, pp. 17, 128-32; Harold Benenson, "The Family Wage and Working Women's Consciousness in Britain, 1880-1914," Politics and Society 19 (1991): 71-108; S. Horrell and Jane Humphries, "The origins and expansion of the male breadwinner family: the case of nineteenth century Britain," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 25-64; A. Janssens, "The Rise and Decline of the male breadwinner family? An overview of the debate," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 1-23.
12. For the long debate on the breadwinner wage, see Jane Humphries, "Class Struggle and the Persistence of the Working-class Family," Cambridge Journal of Economics 1 (1977): 241-48; Wally Seccombe, "Patriarchy Stabilized: the Construction of the Male Breadwinner Norm in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 11 (1986): 65; Sonya O. Rose, "Gender Antagonism and Class Conflict: Exclusionary Strategies of Male Trade Unionists in Nineteenth Century Britain," Social History 13 (1988): 202; Rose, Limited Livelihoods, pp. 17, 128-32; Harold Benenson, "The Family Wage and Working Women's Consciousness in Britain, 1880-1914," Politics and Society 19 (1991): 71-108; S. Horrell and Jane Humphries, "The origins and expansion of the male breadwinner family: the case of nineteenth century Britain," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 25-64; A. Janssens, "The Rise and Decline of the male breadwinner family? An overview of the debate," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 1-23.
13. Richard Connors, "Poor Women, the Parish, and the politics of poverty," Hannah Barker and Elaine Chalus, eds., Gender in Eighteenth Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities (London and New York, 1997) pp. 126-147; Thomas Horne, "The Poor Have a Claim Founded in the Law of Nature: William Paley and the Rights of the Poor," Journal of the History of Philosophy 23, 1 (1985): 51-70.
14. Richard Connors, "Poor Women, the Parish, and the politics of poverty," Hannah Barker and Elaine Chalus, eds., Gender in Eighteenth Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities (London and New York, 1997) pp. 126-147; Thomas Horne, "The Poor Have a Claim Founded in the Law of Nature: William Paley and the Rights of the Poor," Journal of the History of Philosophy 23, 1 (1985): 51-70.
15. S.G. and E.O.A. Checkland, eds., The Poor Law Report of 1834 (Harmondsworth, 1973) p. 214.
16. London, University College, Edwin Chadwick Collection, Box 22, Notes & Historical Extracts by EdwinChadwick, f. 13 quote from Pitt's speech on Whitbread's bill Feb. 12, 1796.
17. Pamela Sharpe, Adapting to Capitalism. Working Women in the English Economy, 1700-1850 (London, 1996) pp. 134, 144.
18. David Levine, "Parson Malthus, Professor Huzel, and the Pelican Inn Protocol: a Comment," Historical Methods 17, 1 (1984): 22.
19. Rev. Thomas R. Malthus, A Letter to Samuel Whitbread, Esq., M.P. on his Proposed Bill for the Amendment of the Poor Laws (London, 1807) 2nd. ed p. 105.
20. "Inquiry into the State of the Poor," Edinburgh Review 11 (1807): 100-115, in Poverty in the Victorian Age: Debates on the Issue from 19th Century Critical Journals, with an introduction by A.W. Coats (Westmead, Farnborough, Hants., England, 1973) vol. 1 of 2.
21. "Inquiry into the State of the Poor," Edinburgh Review 11 (1807): 100-115, in Poverty in the Victorian Age: Debates on the Issue from 19th Century Critical Journals, with an introduction by A.W. Coats (Westmead, Farnborough, Hants., England, 1973) vol. 1 of 2.
22. [George Hancock], Philo Malthus, A Conversation in Political Economy, being an Attempt to Explain Familiarly to the Understanding of Every Man the True Causes of the Evil Operation of Any General System of Poor Laws (London, 1832) pp. 11, 21.
23. Raymond G. Cowherd, Political Economists and the English Poor Law (Columbus, 1977). p. 59.
24. "The Poor Law Question," Quarterly Review 50 (1833):360.
25. Poor Law Report (1834) pp. 133, 156, 460. See also [Sydney Smith], "Poor-Laws," Edinburgh Review 33 (1820): 106; "Causes and Remedies of Pauperism in the United Kingdom," Quarterly Review 43 (1830): 249; "Causes and Cure of Disturbances and Pauperism," Edinburgh Review 53 (1831): 47, all in Poverty in the Victorian Age, vol 1.
26. Poor Law Report (1834) pp. 133, 156, 460. See also [Sydney Smith], "Poor-Laws," Edinburgh Review 33 (1820): 106; "Causes and Remedies of Pauperism in the United Kingdom," Quarterly Review 43 (1830): 249; "Causes and Cure of Disturbances and Pauperism," Edinburgh Review 53 (1831): 47, all in Poverty in the Victorian Age, vol 1.
27. Poor Law Report (1834) pp. 133, 156, 460. See also [Sydney Smith], "Poor-Laws," Edinburgh Review 33 (1820): 106; "Causes and Remedies of Pauperism in the United Kingdom," Quarterly Review 43 (1830): 249; "Causes and Cure of Disturbances and Pauperism," Edinburgh Review 53 (1831): 47, all in Poverty in the Victorian Age, vol 1.
28. Poor Law Report (1834) pp. 133, 156, 460. See also [Sydney Smith], "Poor-Laws," Edinburgh Review 33 (1820): 106; "Causes and Remedies of Pauperism in the United Kingdom," Quarterly Review 43 (1830): 249; "Causes and Cure of Disturbances and Pauperism," Edinburgh Review 53 (1831): 47, all in Poverty in the Victorian Age, vol 1.
29. Poor Law Report (1834) pp. 133, 156, 460. See also [Sydney Smith], "Poor-Laws," Edinburgh Review 33 (1820): 106; "Causes and Remedies of Pauperism in the United Kingdom," Quarterly Review 43 (1830): 249; "Causes and Cure of Disturbances and Pauperism," Edinburgh Review 53 (1831): 47, all in Poverty in the Victorian Age, vol 1.
30. "Amendments of the Poor-Laws," Quarterly Review 43 (1832): 328, in Poverty in the Victorian Age vol. 1.
31. "Amendments of the Poor-Laws," Quarterly Review 43 (1832): 328, in Poverty in the Victorian Age vol. 1.
32. See Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, for a fuller elucidation of this argument.
33. Peter Mandler, "Tories and Paupers: Christian Political Economy and the Making of the New Poor Law," Historical Journal 33, 1(1990): 81-103.
34. "The New Poor Law" Edinburgh Review 63 (1836) p. 501, in Poverty in the Victorian Age, vol. 2.
35. "The New Poor Law" Edinburgh Review 63 (1836) p. 501, in Poverty in the Victorian Age, vol. 2.
36. Peter Dunkley, "Whigs and Paupers: the Reform of the English Poor Laws, 1830-1834," Journal of British Studies 20 (1981): 135.
37. Poor Law Report (1834): 135; Chadwick papers, University College, London, Box 23 folder 3, f. 310, Draft letter tothe commissioners from Chadwick protesting policy, 1841; William Nassau Senior, Remarks on the Opposition to the Poor Law Amendment Bill, (London, 1841) p. 13.
38. Poor Law Report (1834): 135; Chadwick papers, University College, London, Box 23 folder 3, f. 310, Draft letter tothe commissioners from Chadwick protesting policy, 1841; William Nassau Senior, Remarks on the Opposition to the Poor Law Amendment Bill, (London, 1841) p. 13.
39. Public Record Office (PRO) MH10/8 Circulars to Boards of Guardians. reprinted Morning Chronicle 14 Jan 1839; Chadwick papers, Box 23 folder 3, f. 322, letter of N. Senior to Lord Normanby on proposed measures of 1840.
40. Public Record Office (PRO) MH10/8 Circulars to Boards of Guardians. reprinted Morning Chronicle 14 Jan 1839; Chadwick papers, Box 23 folder 3, f. 322, letter of N. Senior to Lord Normanby on proposed measures of 1840.
41. William Nassau Senior, Remarks on the Opposition to the Poor Law Amendment Bill, (London, 1841) p.11.
42. Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law (New Brunswick, N.J., 1978); Philip Harling, "The Power of Persuasion: Central Authority, Local Bureaucracy and the New Poor Law," English Historical Review Jan. 1992 pp. 30-49; Mandler, "Tories and Paupers," Dunkley, "Whigs and Paupers.".
43. Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law (New Brunswick, N.J., 1978); Philip Harling, "The Power of Persuasion: Central Authority, Local Bureaucracy and the New Poor Law," English Historical Review Jan. 1992 pp. 30-49; Mandler, "Tories and Paupers," Dunkley, "Whigs and Paupers.".
44. Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law (New Brunswick, N.J., 1978); Philip Harling, "The Power of Persuasion: Central Authority, Local Bureaucracy and the New Poor Law," English Historical Review Jan. 1992 pp. 30-49; Mandler, "Tories and Paupers," Dunkley, "Whigs and Paupers.".
45. Anthony Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law (New Brunswick, N.J., 1978); Philip Harling, "The Power of Persuasion: Central Authority, Local Bureaucracy and the New Poor Law," English Historical Review Jan. 1992 pp. 30-49; Mandler, "Tories and Paupers," Dunkley, "Whigs and Paupers.".
46. Similarly, the commissioners were forced to alter their views on the bastardy clauses, modifying them in 1844 to allow unmarried women to claim maintenance from fathers of their children.
47. Report of the Poor Law Commissioners (London, 1840) p. 62.
48. PRO MH4/4, Poor Law commissioners correspondence to guardians, North Witchford Union, 1841, f. 3
49. Chadwick papers, Chadwick Ms. Box 203, Correspondence with Lord John Russell, folder 1733. f.167 Chadwick to Russell 23 Aug. 1837; Lynn Lees, Poverty and Pauperism in nineteenth century London. (Leicester, 1988) p.5; PRO MH1/22 Poor Law Commissioners Minutes, f.175, 24 Jan. 1840; MH1/22 Poor Law Commissioners Minutes f. 208, 28 Jan. 1840, rebukes Guardians for giving temporary outdoor relief to married men with children during times of unemployment; MH1/22 Poor Law Commissioners Minutes, f. 221, 29 Jan 1840; MH1/23, f. 45, 21 March 1840, Poor Law Commissioners minutes.
50. Chadwick papers, Chadwick Ms. Box 203, Correspondence with Lord John Russell, folder 1733. f.167 Chadwick to Russell 23 Aug. 1837; Lynn Lees, Poverty and Pauperism in nineteenth century London. (Leicester, 1988) p.5; PRO MH1/22 Poor Law Commissioners Minutes, f.175, 24 Jan. 1840; MH1/22 Poor Law Commissioners Minutes f. 208, 28 Jan. 1840, rebukes Guardians for giving temporary outdoor relief to married men with children during times of unemployment; MH1/22 Poor Law Commissioners Minutes, f. 221, 29 Jan 1840; MH1/23, f. 45, 21 March 1840, Poor Law Commissioners minutes.
51. David Ashforth, "Urban Poor Law" and Anne Digby, "The Workhouse," in Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1976) pp. 129, 166.
52. David Ashforth, "Urban Poor Law" and Anne Digby, "The Workhouse," in Derek Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1976) pp. 129, 166.
53. PRO MH 10/9 2 Aug. 1840, Circulars to Guardians; Robert Humphreys, Sin, Organized Charity and the Poor Law in Victorian England (London, 1995) p. 17.
54. 1840 Report p.63; PRO MH1/22 Poor Law Commissioners Minutes, f. 81, 14 Jan. 1840.
55. PRO MH 10/5, f. 31, Oct. 1842. Circular to Assistant poor Law Commissioners; MH1/22 f. 38, 14 Jan. 1840, Poor Law Commissioners Minutes, concerning St. Thomas union in West of England; MH32/44, f. 8179a, Aug. 1837, Copy of Minute from Poor Law Commissioners about Eastern and Midland counties.
56. Report of the Poor Law Commissioners (1840) p. 143, Edward Twisleton's report on Norfolk and Suffolk.
57. J.H. Gurney, The New Poor Law Explained and Vindicated. A Plain Address to the Labouring Class Among his Parishioners (London, 1841) pp. 19, 85, 94.
58. PRO MH4/4, f. 136, 8 April 1842, Poor Law correspondence.
59. Chadwick papers, Box 23 folder 3, f. 235 Administration of Relief by the Guardians of the Macclesfield Union; John May, Solicitor; f. 244 Administration of Relief by the Guardians of the Bolton Union.
60. PRO MH4/5 f. 450 21 July 1842, Market Bosworth; MH4/4 f. 349 20 Oct. 1842; Merthyr Tydfil Union.
61. PRO MH10/4 26 June 1839, draft letter from Poor Law Commissioners to Assistant Poor Law Commissioners.
62. PRO MH1/23 Poor Law Commissioners minutes, pf. 432-3, 16 May 1840;. 496, 23 May 1840; f. 6384B. letter from Mr. Babington clerk of Horncastle union; Poor Law commissioners correspondence, MH4/2, f. 7, 10 Dec. 1840, Epping union; MH4/2, f. 14, 12 Jan. 1841; Hartismere Union; MH4/2, f. 23, 18 March 1841; MH4/2, f. 23, 27 March 1841; MH4/4, f. 24. 25 Jan. 1842; MH4/4, f. 27, 29 Jan. 1842.
63. MH4/2, 29 22 Jan. 1841. Plomesgate union. MH4/2, 26 22 Feb. 1841. Amersham Union. MH4/4, f. 371. Newent Union.
64. PRO MH10/11 Circulars to Boards of Guardians, The Operation and Construction of the Act 7 and 8 vic c. 101, for the Further amendment of laws relating to the poor in England. 10 Aug. 1844.
65. PRO MH1/23 Poor Law Commissioners minutes pf. 432-3, 16 May 1840, referring to letter from Mr. Ottway, clerk of Maidstone union.
66. Poor Law Report (1834): 214, 172, 114.
67. Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches, pp. 197-200.
68. The classic article is Olwen Hufton, "Bastardy and the New Poor Law," Past and Present 37 (1967): 103-129.
69. Lees, Solidarities, p. 143.
70. PRO MH32/44, f. 8179a. Aug. 1837. Copy of Minute from PL Com. about Eastern and Midland counties.
71. Chadwick Papers, Box 23 folder 7, f. 589 Extract from a Report on the Comparative State of Pauperism of the Parishes of Birmingham and Aston.
72. Chadwick papers, Box 23 folder 3, f. 270 Appendix C. 1840? Extract from paper wirtten by E. Chadwick. Partial relief, or allowances in aid of wages.
73. PRO MH32/44f. 80248, 31 Oct. 1839. Letter to Commissioners from Edmund Head
74. PRO MH32/36 f. 4136a., 5 April 1845, letter from Richard Hall, assistant commissioner, to Commissioners. Also Chadwick papers, Box 23 folder 3, ff. 27608, 12 Oct. 1839, note from H. W. Parker.
75. Chadwick Collection, Box 23, folder 2 Workhouses, f. 50 Feb. 27, 1840. Evidence of the Chairman of St. George's in the East to Poor Law Commissioners.
76. Chadwick Collection, Ms. 1478, letters to Lord Normanby, Constantine Phipps, 7 March 1840.
77. PRO MH 32/44 f. 7799a, 17 Sept 1837, letter from Edmund Head to Commissioners; MH 10/9, 2 Aug. 1840, Circular to Guardians of the Poor.
78. Chadwick Papers Box 23, folder 3, f. 246, 2 Aug. 1841. Instructional Letter as to General Prohibitory Letter. To Clerks of Board of Guardians, regulating relief of able-bodied paupers. by George Coode.
79. Lees, Solidarities of Strangers, p. 210.
80. Rose, Limited Livelihoods, p. 193; Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p. 268.
81. Rose, Limited Livelihoods, p. 193; Clark, Struggle for the Breeches, p. 268.
82. Webb and Webb, English Poor Law Policy, pp. 23-4.
83. Lees, Solidarities of Strangers, p. 143.
84. Robert Pashley, Pauperism and the Poor Laws (London, 1852) p. 20.
85. W. Neilson Hancock, The Difference between the English and the Irish Poor Law, as to the Treatment of Women and unemployed workmen (Dublin, 1862) p. 17.
86. Anna Clark, "Gender, class and the nation: franchise reform in England, 1832-1928," in Re-Reading the Constitution, edited by James Vernon (Cambridge, 1996) p. 240; for employers, Rose, Limited Livelihoods.
87. Anna Clark, "Gender, class and the nation: franchise reform in England, 1832-1928," in Re-Reading the Constitution, edited by James Vernon (Cambridge, 1996) p. 240; for employers, Rose, Limited Livelihoods.
88. Eileen Janes Yeo, The Contest for Social Science. Relations and Representations of Gender and Class (London, 1996) p. 122.
89. See also Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science 1884 (London, 1885) p. 656; Caroline Ashurst Briggs, Women as Poor Law Guardians (London, 1887) reprinted from Englishwoman's Review. p.2.
90. See also Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science 1884 (London, 1885) p. 656; Caroline Ashurst Briggs, Women as Poor Law Guardians (London, 1887) reprinted from Englishwoman's Review. p.2.
91. Eileen Janes Yeo, "Social Motherhood and the Sexual Communion of Labour in British Social Science, 1850-1950," Women's History Review 1, 1 (1992): 63-87; Seth Koven, "Borderlands: Women, Voluntary Action, and Child Welfare in Britain, 1840 to 1914," in Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World. Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (London, 1993) p. 95.
92. Eileen Janes Yeo, "Social Motherhood and the Sexual Communion of Labour in British Social Science, 1850-1950," Women's History Review 1, 1 (1992): 63-87; Seth Koven, "Borderlands: Women, Voluntary Action, and Child Welfare in Britain, 1840 to 1914," in Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World. Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (London, 1993) p. 95.
93. Jane Lewis, Feminism and Social Action in Britain since 1860 (Aldershot, Hants, 1991) p. 35.
94. Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science Meeting, 1868 (London, 1869) pp. 604-609.
95. Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science Meeting, 1868 (London, 1869) p. 544.
96. John Offer, "Spencer's Sociology of Welfare," Sociological Review 31, 4 (1983): 725, 728.
97. Jane Lewis, The Voluntary Sector, the State and Social Work in Britain: the Charity Organisation Society/Family Welfare Association since 1869 (Aldershots, Hants, 1995); Humphreys, Sin, Organized Charity, for an extensive discussion of the COS in the 1870s and 1880s; Lees, Solidarities of Strangers, p. 221.
98. Jane Lewis, The Voluntary Sector, the State and Social Work in Britain: the Charity Organisation Society/Family Welfare Association since 1869 (Aldershots, Hants, 1995); Humphreys, Sin, Organized Charity, for an extensive discussion of the COS in the 1870s and 1880s; Lees, Solidarities of Strangers, p. 221.
99. Jane Lewis, The Voluntary Sector, the State and Social Work in Britain: the Charity Organisation Society/Family Welfare Association since 1869 (Aldershots, Hants, 1995); Humphreys, Sin, Organized Charity, for an extensive discussion of the COS in the 1870s and 1880s; Lees, Solidarities of Strangers, p. 221.
100. Mary MacKinnon, "Poor Law Policy, Unemployment, and Pauperism," Explorations in Economic History 23, (1986): 302; Mary MacKinnon, "English Poor Law Policy and the Crusade against Outrelief," Journal of Economic History 47, 3 (1987): 603-617.
101. Mary MacKinnon, "Poor Law Policy, Unemployment, and Pauperism," Explorations in Economic History 23, (1986): 302; Mary MacKinnon, "English Poor Law Policy and the Crusade against Outrelief," Journal of Economic History 47, 3 (1987): 603-617.
102. T. Bland Garland, From Pauperism to Manliness. The Story of the Bradfield Union. (Charity Oganisation Society Occasional paper, No. 21, London, 1891) p. 5.
103. First Annual Poor Law Conference for the South Midland District. (Northampton, 1876) p. 11, comments of J. Bryce; Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Poor Law Relief. PP Poor Relief 1888 (363) XV (Irish PP vol. 27) p. 207, statement of Augustus Crowder, guardian, St. George's in East.; Henry Fawcett, Pauperism, its causes and remedies (London, 1871) pp. 93.
104. First Annual Poor Law Conference for the South Midland District. (Northampton, 1876) p. 11, comments of J. Bryce; Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Poor Law Relief. PP Poor Relief 1888 (363) XV (Irish PP vol. 27) p. 207, statement of Augustus Crowder, guardian, St. George's in East.; Henry Fawcett, Pauperism, its causes and remedies (London, 1871) pp. 93.
105. First Annual Poor Law Conference for the South Midland District. (Northampton, 1876) p. 11, comments of J. Bryce; Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Poor Law Relief. PP Poor Relief 1888 (363) XV (Irish PP vol. 27) p. 207, statement of Augustus Crowder, guardian, St. George's in East.; Henry Fawcett, Pauperism, its causes and remedies (London, 1871) pp. 93.
106. Humphreys, Sin, Organized Charity, pp. 22, 29; K. Williams, Pauperism to Poverty, p. 95; Thane, "Women and the Poor Law," p. 38.
107. Humphreys, Sin, Organized Charity, pp. 22, 29; K. Williams, Pauperism to Poverty, p. 95; Thane, "Women and the Poor Law," p. 38.
108. Humphreys, Sin, Organized Charity, pp. 22, 29; K. Williams, Pauperism to Poverty, p. 95; Thane, "Women and the Poor Law," p. 38.
109. Michael V. White, "Following Strange Gods: Women in Jevons's Political Economy," in Peter Groenewegen, Feminism and Political Economy in Victory England (Aldershot, 1994) p. 54.
110. Report from the Select Commttee of the House of Lords on Poor Law Relief. PP 1888 (363) XV (Irish University Press, Parliamentary Papers, vol. 27) pp. 399, 492, testimony of James Harding, vestrymen of Lambeth, clerkenwell, guardian at Bromley; William Vallance, Clerk of Guardians of Whitechapel Union. See also Albert Pell, Guardian of St. George's in the East, p. 127.
111. PRO MH32/45/71325/73, 12 November 1973, Mr. Henley, Local Poor Law Inspector to John Lambert, Esq. Secretary of the Local Government Board.
112. Rev. L.R. Phelps, Poor Law and Charity (Oxford, 1887) p. 10; See also Sophia Lonsdale, The Evils of a Lax System of Out-door relief. (Cheltenham and London, 1895) pp. 4-5.
113. Rev. L.R. Phelps, Poor Law and Charity (Oxford, 1887) p. 10; See also Sophia Lonsdale, The Evils of a Lax System of Out-door relief. (Cheltenham and London, 1895) pp. 4-5.
114. First Annual Poor Law Conference for the South Midland District, comments of J. Bryce, p. 15.
115. PP Poor Relief 1888 p. 164.
116. Garland, From Pauperism to Manliness, p.4.
117. Lewis, Voluntary Sector, p. 53.
118. Chadwick Collection, Newspaper cuttings on the Poor Law, Item 123, f. 33, Daily News January 1876.
119. Francis Peek, The Uncharitableness of Inadequate Relief, (London, 1879) p. 7.
120. PRO MH32/45/36485/1871, 14 August 1871, Mr. Henley, Poor Law inspector to the Poor Law Board.
121. Lonsdale, The Evils of a Lax System of Out-door relief, p. 12.
122. PP 1888 XV p. 323.
123. PRO MH12/7511/280/1, Correspondence with Marylebone Board of Guardians, Dec. 16, 1886; 14 Jan. 1887 reply.
124. Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," in Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire (Berkeley, 1997) p. 93.
125. For persistence of this judgemental attitude, see Pat Thane, "The Working Class and state 'welfare' in Britain, 1880-1914," The Historical Journal v. 27 (1984): 879; The Democratic Charter of the Future; or Outlines of Progressive Reforms in Government, Social Economy, Labour-Arrangement, Education, Law, Police, Military, Poor-Relief etc (London, 1870); R. Reid, How the Working Classes are to be Saved, and Pauperism Extinguished. (Northampton, 1883); J.L. Joynes, The Socialist Catechism (London, 1884).
126. For persistence of this judgemental attitude, see Pat Thane, "The Working Class and state 'welfare' in Britain, 1880-1914," The Historical Journal v. 27 (1984): 879; The Democratic Charter of the Future; or Outlines of Progressive Reforms in Government, Social Economy, Labour-Arrangement, Education, Law, Police, Military, Poor-Relief etc (London, 1870); R. Reid, How the Working Classes are to be Saved, and Pauperism Extinguished. (Northampton, 1883); J.L. Joynes, The Socialist Catechism (London, 1884).
127. For persistence of this judgemental attitude, see Pat Thane, "The Working Class and state 'welfare' in Britain, 1880-1914," The Historical Journal v. 27 (1984): 879; The Democratic Charter of the Future; or Outlines of Progressive Reforms in Government, Social Economy, Labour-Arrangement, Education, Law, Police, Military, Poor-Relief etc (London, 1870); R. Reid, How the Working Classes are to be Saved, and Pauperism Extinguished. (Northampton, 1883); J.L. Joynes, The Socialist Catechism (London, 1884).
128. For persistence of this judgemental attitude, see Pat Thane, "The Working Class and state 'welfare' in Britain, 1880-1914," The Historical Journal v. 27 (1984): 879; The Democratic Charter of the Future; or Outlines of Progressive Reforms in Government, Social Economy, Labour-Arrangement, Education, Law, Police, Military, Poor-Relief etc (London, 1870); R. Reid, How the Working Classes are to be Saved, and Pauperism Extinguished. (Northampton, 1883); J.L. Joynes, The Socialist Catechism (London, 1884).
129. M. Oldroyd, A Living Wage. (London, 1894), p. 10. MP for Dewsbury.
130. F. Sutton Dodd, Poor Law Reform. a paper read before the Stechford Literary and Debating Society (London, 1890)
131. J.F. Oakeshott, The Humanizing of the Poor Law (London, 1894) p. 33. George Lansbury, The Principles of the English Poor Law (London, 1897) p.10. George Lansbury, of course, was very innovative in extending outrelief in Poplar, although it is interesting that following his socialist principles he did not idealize the family in the way other reformers did.
132. J.F. Oakeshott, The Humanizing of the Poor Law (London, 1894) p. 33. George Lansbury, The Principles of the English Poor Law (London, 1897) p.10. George Lansbury, of course, was very innovative in extending outrelief in Poplar, although it is interesting that following his socialist principles he did not idealize the family in the way other reformers did.
133. Benenson, Family Wage, p. 87.
134. Pedersen, pp. 48-49.
135. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, The Minority Report of the Poor Law Commission Part II: The Public Organization of the Labour Market (London, 1909) p. 243.
136. Helen Bosanquet, The Poor Law Report of 1909. (London, 1909) p. 26.
137. Lees, Solidarities of Strangers, p. 327.
138. Helen Bosanquet, The Poor Law Report of 1909 (London, 1909) pp. 19, 26, 42, 92.
139. Thane, "Women and the Poor Law," p. 45; Pedersen, p. 40.
140. Thane, "Women and the Poor Law," p. 45; Pedersen, p. 40.
141. Benenson, Family Wage, p. 90; M.A., "The Economic Foundations of the Women's Movement," Fabian Tract No. 175, June 1914, in Women's Fabian Tracts, edited by Sally Alexander (New York and London, 1988) p. 277.
142. Benenson, Family Wage, p. 90; M.A., "The Economic Foundations of the Women's Movement," Fabian Tract No. 175, June 1914, in Women's Fabian Tracts, edited by Sally Alexander (New York and London, 1988) p. 277.
143. For this debate after the war, see Pamela Graves, Labour Women (Cambridge, 1994). But for trade union women's attitudes, see also Jane Mark-Lawson, Mark Savage, and Alan Warde, "Gender and local politics: struggles over welfare policies, 1918-1939," in L. Murgatroyd, ed., Localities, Class and Gender (London, 1985) p. 197.
144. For this debate after the war, see Pamela Graves, Labour Women (Cambridge, 1994). But for trade union women's attitudes, see also Jane Mark-Lawson, Mark Savage, and Alan Warde, "Gender and local politics: struggles over welfare policies, 1918-1939," in L. Murgatroyd, ed., Localities, Class and Gender (London, 1985) p. 197.