Homeland security planning: What victory gardens and Fidel Castro can teach us in preparing for food crises in the United States

Food and Drug Law Journal

Volumn 64, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 405-439

  Endres, A Bryan ^a   Endres, Jody M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONSUMER; CUBA; FARMING SYSTEM; FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION; FOOD CONTROL; FOOD SAFETY; FOOD SECURITY; MARKETING; POLICY; PROSPECTIVE PRICING; REVIEW; SATISFACTION; UNITED STATES; WAR;

AGRICULTURE; CIVIL DEFENSE; CUBA; DISASTER PLANNING; FOOD INDUSTRY; FOOD SUPPLY; GARDENING; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 21ST CENTURY; HUMANS; INTERINSTITUTIONAL RELATIONS; SECURITY MEASURES; SEPTEMBER 11 TERRORIST ATTACKS; TERRORISM; UNITED STATES; UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE; UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY; UNITED STATES FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION; WORLD WAR II;

EID: 66749106955     PISSN: 1064590X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

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8. See also Rasco, Barbara A. & Bledsoe, Gleyn E., BIOTERRORISM AND FOOD SAFETY (CRC Press 2005) (stating that "the food [system] is highly vulnerable because of the diversity of sources of food, the distribution of food in global markets, and the complexity of the supply chain ...").
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10. Chalk, supra note 7, at 7; Katz, Linda B., ed., AGROTERRORISM: ANOTHER DOMINO 3 (Novinka 2005).
11. Four firms control between 50-80 percent of the U.S. market for most of the major agricultural commodities. Hendrickson, Mary & Heffernan, William, Concentration of Agricultural Markets, (Apr. 2007), http://www.nfu.org/wp- content/2007-heffernanreport.pdf.
12. The 2007 U.S. Agriculture Department (USDA) report on farm structure and finances clearly concludes that there is a shift to larger farms in the U.S. See USDA, STRUCTURE AND FINANCES OF U.S. FARMS: FAMILY FARM REPORT, 2007 EDITION, http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/EIB24/.
13. Five firms control most of the genetics for the major crops grown worldwide. Hendrickson, Mary K. & James, Harvey S., Jr., The Ethics of Constrained Choice: How the Industrialization of Agriculture Impacts Farming and Farmer Behavior, 18 J. OF AGRIC. & ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 269, 271 (2005).
14. Khan, Ali S., et al., Precautions against Biological and Chemical Terrorism Directed at Food and Water Supplies, PUBLIC HEALTH REPORTS, Vol.116 (Jan.-Feb. 2001) at 4-6.
15. Hill, Holly, Food Miles: Background and Marketing, U.S. Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA) (2008) at 2.
16. Roberts, Michael T., Role of Regulation in Minimizing Terrorist Threats Against the Food Supply: Information, Incentives, and Penalties, 8 MINN. J. OF L. SCI. AND TECH. 199, 208 (Winter 2007) (citing the Secretary of Agriculture's comment that he is surprised the agriculture has not been the subject of a terrorist attack because it 'is so easy to do").
17. Chalk, supra note 7, at 33.
18. Dahlberg, Kenneth A., Regenerative Food Systems: Broadening the Scope and Agenda of Sustainability in FOOD FOR THE FUTURE 78 (1993, Patricia Allen, ed.).
19. Id. at 77.
20. Id.
21. Id. at 78,
22. Id. at 79.
23. Chalk, supra note 7, at 19-33.
24. See Dahlberg, supra note 14, at 98.
25. Hedden, Roger, the former chief of the Bureau of Commerce for the N.Y. Port Authority, first termed the term "food shed" in 1929 in his work How Great Cities are Fed, See Pothukuchi, Kemeshwari & Kaufman, Jerome L., The role of municipal institutions in food systems planning, 16 J. AG. & HUMAN VALUES 213, 215 (1999). Chalk, supra note 7, at 33-42.
26. Pothkukuchi, Kemeshwari & Kaufman, Jerome L., The Food System: A Stranger to the Planning Field, Num. 66, Vol.2 APA J. (113-122) (2000).
27. Dahlberg, supra note 14, at 81.
28. Id.
29. Marcus, Erica, Burning Questions, NEWSDAY (Oct. 4, 206) at B17 (quoting noted food safety scholar Marion Nestle's position that the e.coli outbreak demonstrates why America's food safety system needs an overhaul).
30. See also, GAO Report, Federal oversight of food safety: Heightened risk designation can bring needed attention to a fragmented system, No. GAO 07-569CG (2007).
31. DeLind, Laura B. & Howard, Philip H., Safe at any scale? Food scares, food regulation, and scaled alternatives, 25 AGRIC, & HUMAN VALUES, 301, 303-305, (2008) (arguing that responding to food safety concerns with additional scientized and highly capitalized investments only reinforces the food safety problems inherent in industrialized agriculture at the expense of a small-scale entities with a history of safe food production).
32. Douaud, Clarisse, U.S. Politicians Weigh In On Biofuels vs. Food Debate, FOOD NAVIGATOR USA (Apr. 30, 2008), http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/news/ng. asp?n=85032&c=DR%2BCyxR6gls%2FrGG8u%2FhtIg%3D%3D
33. Burros, Marian, Obamas to Plant Vegetable Garden at White House, NY TIMES, (Mar. 19, 2009).
34. Burros, Marian, Obamas Hire Chef From Chicago, NY TIMES, (Jan. 28, 2009).
35. ASSOCIATED PRESS, FDA finds multiple problems at peanut plant (Jan. 28, 2009), http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/28897859/.
36. See Endres, A. Bryan, United States Food Law Update: Food Safety Planning, Attribute Labeling, and the Irradiation Debate, 4 J. FOOD L. & POLICY 129, 130-133 (2008) ( discussing food safety and imports);
37. Coit, Marne, Jumping on the Next Bandwagon: An Overview of the Policy and Legal Aspects of the Local Food Movement, 4 J. FOOD L. & POLICY 24, 51-54 (2008) (discussing food transportation costs).
38. New Perspectives on Food Security at 1-5, (Nov. 12-14, 2005), http://www.glynwood.org/programs/foodsec/FSC%20Full%20Proceedings.pdf.
39. DeLind and Howard, supra note 26, argue, in the context of food safety, that what is needed is not an "endless proliferation of industry-vetted standards, marks and labels" but rather the "creation of local and regional networks for food production, processing and distribution - substituting biocultural diversity for superficial variation" and "high-tech responses to common-sense, low-tech solutions." DeLind & Howard, supra note 26, at 311 and 313. To that end, "regulations need to be scaled according to production volume and geographic scope - situating food safety practices within ecological contexts and market extent, and situating oversight and enforcement within differing levels of public jurisdiction." Id. at 312-313. On the other hand, it is important to acknowledge, and work within the constraints of a consuming public that demands abundant, low-price food. A diverse, flexible food system, in addition to being small in scale, would necessitate considerable redundancy, id. at 313, and thus would not benefit from the economies of scale present in industrialized agriculture that provide low-cost food, uni-dimensional food to the masses.
40. Bentley, Amy, EATING FOR VICTORY 117 (Univ. of IL Press) (1998).
41. See e.g., City of New York Housing Authority, http://www.nyc.gov/html/ nycha/html/community/garden.shtml,
42. and Department of Parks and Recreation, http://nycgovparks.org/sub-about/ partners/greenthumb/greenthumb.html;
43. Chicago Park District: Gardening in the Parks, http://www.cpdit.com/ resources/community-gardens/ ;
44. Victory Gardens 2007+ (San Francisco), http://www.future-farmers.com/ victorygardens/ and http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/fea/home/ stories/DN-nhg-wirevictorygarden-0229li.ART.State.Edition1.17d0dlc.html.
45. Warwick, Hugh, Cuba's Organic Revolution, FORUM FOR APPLIED RESEARCH AND PUBLIC POLICY (Summer 2001).
46. Nielander, William Ahlers, WARTIME FOOD RATIONING IN THE U.S. 21 (World Trade Relations Press) (1947) (stating that prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor "America had practically no plans and no organization to guide it through the mazes of protracted war.").
47. See also Baker, Benjamin, WARTIME FOOD PROCUREMENT AND PRODUCTION 1 (King's Crown Press) (1951)
48. Id. at 2-3.
49. Id. at 3.
50. Id. at 10-32 (explaining the establishment of the War Food Administration and its predecessor agencies).
51. Id. at 5.
52. Id. at 10.
53. Id. at 19. The Second War Powers Act of 1942 provided the President the power to allocate materials necessary for defense if the material was in short supply. Pub. L. 507, 77th Cong. (Mar. 27, 1942).
54. Hendrickson, Roy F., FOOD CRISIS 1 (Doubleday) (1943).
55. Halper, Emanuel B., Supermarket Use and Exclusive Clauses, Part Five - the Supermarket Business model is Completed as the Supers Adapt to World War II Conditions, 42 REAL PROP. PROB. & TR. J. 113, 121 (Spring 2007).
56. Jacobs, Meg, "How about Some Meat?" The Office of Price Administration, Consumption Politics, and State Building from the Bottom Up, 1941-1946, J. AMER. HISTORY 910, 918, Vol.84, No. 3 (Dec. 1997).
57. Baker, supra note 37, at 148.
58. Halper, supra note 45, at 122.
59. Baker, supra note 37, at 33.
60. Geissler, Gus F., Allocations - Blueprints for Food Distribution, THE ANNALS OF THE AMER. ACAD. OF POL & SOC. SCI., Vol.278, No. 1, 147, 146 (1951).
61. Id. at 148.
62. Baker, supra note 37, at 47.
63. The Supply Estimates Committees for each commodity was responsible for calculating supplies. Id.
64. See infra notes 92-107 (discussing rationing policies during World War II).
65. Egan, Charles E., C. C. Davis New Food Chief, Replacing Wickard in Post, NY TIMES (Mar. 26, 1943) at 1.
66. Executive Order 9280 (Dec. 5, 1942); Baker, supra note 37, at 35.
67. Baker, supra note 37, at 37.
68. Id.
69. Id. at 69-79. See also Diagram, Food Distribution Administration Organizational Structure, http://www.sos.state.or.us/archives/exhibits/ww2/ services/pdf/nut2.pdf (last visited Jan. 11, 2008).
70. Baker, supra note 37, at 37-38.
71. Id. at 38.
72. Secretary of Agriculture, Memorandum No. 16, Supp. E (Jan. 20, 1943); Baker, supra note 37, at 36.
73. Executive Order 9233 (Mar. 26, 1943); Baker, supra note 37, at 38.
74. Executive Order 9334 (April 19, 1943); Baker, supra note 37, at 38.
75. War Food Administrator Memorandum No. 30; Baker, supra note 37, at 29.
76. For a detailed historical account of the Combined Food Board, see Eric Roll, THE COMBINED FOOD BOARD (Stanford University Press) 1956.
77. Baker, supra note 37, at 85.
78. Id. at 86, 89-90.
79. Id.
80. Id.
81. Id.
82. Id. at 86-87.
83. Id. at 87.
84. Id.
85. Id.
86. Id.
87. Id. at 88.
88. Id.
89. Id.
90. Id. at 92.
91. Id. at 93-98.
92. Id. at 99.
93. Commodity goals were grouped into the following categories: meat, oils and fats, milk, eggs and poultry, fruits and vegetables, feed grains and hay, and wheat. Call, L.E., Food in the War Effort, TRANSACTIONS OF THE KANSAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Vol.46 (Apr. 10, 1943) at 268.
94. Baker, supra note 37, at 138.
95. Id. at 118-133. The Extension Service, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, and other community committees were consolidated into War Boards in 1943 to aid in the production planning process at the local level. Id.
96. Id. at 138.
97. Id.
98. Id.
99. Id.
100. Id. at 139-141.
101. Id. at 141.
102. For an in-depth discussion of the U.S. rationing system during World War II, see Nielander, supra note 34; Rusell, Judith & Rantin, Renee, STUDIES IN FOOD RATIONING (OPA) (1947);
103. and, Office of Information, INFORMATION PROGRAM FOR POINT RATIONING AND CANNED AND PROCESSED FOODS (OPA) (1943).
104. Halper, supra note 45, at 134. Among the items subject to a rationed point-system were sugar, coffee, meat, fish, cheese, and canned and other processed food. Id.
105. Id. at 135.
106. Id. at 136.
107. Office Price Administration, Information Program for Point Rationing of Canned and Processed Foods (Jan. 1943) (stating that "no one can chisel your share - and you can't chisel on theirs," and "the patriotic citizen buys only what he actually needs."); Jacobs, supra note 46, at 920. Although perhaps too soon forgotten amid the consumerism at the end of the century and the raise in obesity-related illnesses, one indirect benefit from the rationing program was that Americans increased their knowledge of what constituted a healthy diet. Clive M. McCay, America Is Learning What to Eat, N.Y. TIMES (Mar. 28, 1943) at SM10.
108. Nielander, supra note 37, at 27.
109. Agricultural commodity prices could be capped under the Act if prices reached: (1) 110 percent parity; (2) the market price prevailing on October 1, 1941; (3) the market price prevailing on December 15, 1941; or, (4) the average price during the period between July 1, 1919 and June 30, 1929. Nielander, supra note 34. at 28. Parity is "the restoration and maintenance of the 'balance between production and consumption of agricultural commodities. . . as will reestablish prices to the farmer at a level that will give agricultural prices a purchasing power with respect to articles that farmers buy, equivalent to the purchasing power of agricultural commodities during the base period.'" Baker, supra note 37, at 134.
110. Jacobs, supra note 46, at 917.
111. Id.
112. Id. at 917-918.
113. Bentley, supra note 34, at 19.
114. Jacobs, supra note 46, at 918.
115. Id.
116. Id.
117. For example, would the war powers provision of the Constitution support an agency order dictating the type and amount of production in response to a terrorist act involving the food supply? Has a federal police power evolved in constitutional jurisprudence to allow the federal government to commandeer a food crisis response that arguably is the prerogative of the state(s) involved? See generally Kahan, Rebecca M., Comment, Constitutional Stretch, Snap-Back and Sag: Why Blaisdell Was a Sharper Blow to Liberty Than Korematsu, 99 N.W. U. L. R. 1279 (2005) (describing generally crisis governance under the U.S. Constitution, including economic and violent crisis);
118. McMillan, Christine M., Comment, Federal Flood Insurance Policy: Making Matters Worse, 44 HOUS. L.R. 471 (2007) (addressing constitutional management of natural disasters);
119. Riley, Sarah M., Comment, Constitutional Crisis or Déjà Vu? The War Power, the Bush Administration and the War on Terror, 45 DUQ. L. REV. 701, 725-730 (2007) (discussing Youngstown Sheet & Tube v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1953) and the power of the executive to justify actions under the war powers provision of the Constitution);
120. Devins, Neal and Fisher, Louis, The Steel Seizure Case: One of a Kind? 19 CONST. COMMENTARY 63 (2002) (analyzing whether the case reconciled executive actions under the war powers act with the takings clause).
121. No comprehensive planning occurred prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor as to how the federal government bureaucracy would respond to the food demands of a greatly-expanded military. As a result, the bureaucratic structure to achieve allocations shifted chaotically throughout 1942 and 1943 in response to Congressional allegations that the allocation process was broken down and mired in bureaucratic tangles. Egan, Charles E., C.C. Davis New Food Chief, Replacing Wickard in Post, NY TIMES (Mar. 26, 1943) at 1.
122. Pack, Charles Lathrop, THE WAR GARDEN VICTORIOUS 24-34 (Lippincott) 1919.
123. Id. at 9-10.
124. U.S. Office of Civilian Defense, GUIDE FOR PLANNING THE LOCAL VICTORY GARDEN PROGRAM 3 (Mar. 25, 1942).
125. Id. at 3.
126. Id.
127. Victory Gardens to Bloom in the U.S., NY TIMES (Jan. 12, 1942) at 19.
128. To Push "Victory Garden": National Committee Is Headed by Tennessee Governor, NY TIMES (Jan. 23, 1943) at 22.
129. Id.
130. E.L.D. Seymour, ed., THE NEW GARDEN ENCYCLOPEDIA: THE VICTORY GARDEN EDITION 1358 (Wm. H. Wise & Co. 1943).
131. Id. at 1360.
132. U.S. Office of Civilian Defense, GUIDE FOR PLANNING THE LOCAL VICTORY GARDEN PROGRAM 5 (Mar. 25, 1942).
133. 119 Id.
134. Id. at 6.
135. Id. The committee also was in charge of planning, supervising and working of the gardens and processing projects, offering training courses, procurement and/or organization of shared equipment and supplies, distributing information developed by the Government, publicizing the program, and raising funds for the program. Id. Records were kept for each volunteer member, including information such as their level of expertise in gardening and processing, the type of garden owned, and whether or not the volunteer could provide transportation, equipment or supplies to others. Id. at 6-7. 122 Id. at 3. Americans did learn through victory gardening that fresh food can provide a more balanced and complete diet than processed food. McCay, supra note 86, at SM10.
136. This strategy is depicted clearly in Government posters published during World War II. See e.g., Posters, National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the U.S. Food Administration, http://www.archives.gov/education/ lessons/sow-seeds/#documents.
137. For example, the University of Illinois at Champaign Urbana Extension Service provided a weekly seasonal broadcast on victory gardening. See Illinois University Extension Service in Agricultural and Home Economics, VICTORY GARDEN RADIO PROGRAM TRANSCRIPTS, 1943.
138. Will Lend Land for Gardeners, NY TIMES (Feb. 27, 1943) at 16 (noting that the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad was lending unused parts of its right-of-way to gardeners);
139. Builders to Give Idle Home Plots for War Gardens, NY TIMES (Feb. 28, 1943) at RE1.
140. Seymour, supra note 116, at 1356.
141. Women Fight Curb on Chicken Raising, NY TIMES (Jan. 1, 1943) at 18.
142. More Cookers Set for Home Canning, NY TIMES (Mar. 24, 1943) at 26.
143. Chapman, Paul W., VICTORY BARNYARD 190 (McGraw Hill 1943).
144. OPA Information Program, supra note 96, at 24.
145. Seymour, supra note 116, at 1356.
146. Illinois State Council of Defense, letter to local victory garden committees (June 9, 1943).
147. Hochbaum, H.W., Uncle Sam Sets the Goal for 1943 Victory Gardens, NY TIMES (Jan. 17, 1943) at D9.
148. 18,000,000 Gardens Urged for Victory, NY TIMES (Jan. 22, 1943) at 23.
149. Id.
150. Jacobs, Meg, POCKETBOOK POLITICS: ECONOMIC CITIZENSHIP IN TWENTIETH CENTURY AMERICA 200 (Princeton University Press 2005).
151. See Adger, W. Neil, Social and ecological resilience: are they related? 24 PROGRESS IN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 347, 349 (2000);
152. Elmquist, Thomas, et al., Response Diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience, 1 FRONTIERS IN ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 488, 488 (2003).
153. Id.
154. Id. at 361.
155. THOMAS A. LYSON, CIVIL AGRICULTURE: RECONNECTING FARM, FOOD AND COMMUNITY 4 (2004).
156. Id. at 4-5.
157. Id. at 5.
158. Id. at 5.
159. Elmquist, supra note 137, at 488 (defining "response diversity" as the "diversity of responses to environmental change among species that contribute to the same ecosystem function").
160. MEDEA BENJAMIN, ET AL., EDS., NO FREE LUNCH: FOOD AND REVOLUTION IN CUBA TODAY 8 (Institute for Food and Development Policy 1989)
161. Id. at 162-163.
162. Id. at 166.
163. Id. at 168.
164. Id. at 169.
165. Id. at 179. By 1980, over 80 percent of farms were owned by the state. LAURA ENRÍQUEZ, THE QUESTION OF FOOD SECURITY IN CUBAN SOCIALISM 20 (Univ. of Calif. 1994).
166. Id. at 21.
167. Id. at 22.
168. Id. at 22-23.
169. Id. at 18-19.
170. Id. at 22.
171. Id. at 26.
172. Id. at 22.
173. Id.
174. Id. at 22-23.
175. Id. at 22.
176. Id. at 26.
177. Id. at 27.
178. Id. at 47.
179. Id. at 45.
180. Warwick, supra note 36, at 54.
181. Rosset, Peter M., Alternative Agriculture and Crisis in Cuba, IEEE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY MAGAZINE (Summer 1997) at 19.
182. Id.
183. Id. at 20; ENRÍQUEZ, supra note 150, at 15.
184. Rosset, supra note 166, at 19.
185. BENJAMIN, supra note 145, at 60.
186. Id. at 60-61.
187. Id. at 64.
188. Id. at 71.
189. Id. at 74-75.
190. Id. at 75.
191. ENRÍQUEZ, supra note 150, at 21-22.
192. Carmen Diana Deere, Socialism on One Island? Cuba's National Prospects for Food Security (Working Paper Series No. 124) (June 1992) at 4.
193. Id. at 22.
194. Id. at 2.
195. Trimiño, Gilberto J. Cabrera, Challenges For Cuban Cooperativism: Organic Farming and the Environment 89, in CUBA IN THE SPECIAL PERIOD: CUBAN PERSPECTIVES (Vinson Sutlive, et al., eds.) (Wm. & Mary College) (June 1997);
196. French, Howard W., Cuba, Hurt by Falling Soviet Imports, Makes Field Hands of Office Workers, NY TIMES (Dec. 1, 1990) at 3.
197. Rosset, Peter M., Cuba: A Successful Case Study of Sustainable Agriculture, at 204 in HUNGRY FOR PROFIT: THE AGRIBUSINESS THREAT TO FARMERS, FOOD AND THE ENVIRONMENT (Fred Magdoff, et al., eds.) (Monthly Review Press 2000).
198. Rosset, supra note 166, at 21.
199. French, Howard W., With No Chickens in the Pot, Cubans' Faith in Castro's Revolution is Waning, NY TIMES (Oct. 10, 1991) at A3.
200. Rosset, supra note 166, at 21.
201. Id.
202. Campbell, Al, The Cuban Economy has Turned the Corner: The Question now is Where is it Going? in CUBAN TRANSITIONS AT THE MILLENNIUM 180-181 (Eloise Linger, et al., eds) (Intl' Dev. Options 2000).
203. Id.
204. Koont, Sinan, Food Security in Cuba, MONTHLY REVIEW (Dec. 9, 2003) at 19.
205. Deere, supra note 177, at 6; French, Howard W., Cuba Hurt by Falling Soviet Imports, Makes Field hands of Office Workers, NY TIMES (Dec. 1, 1990) at 3.
206. Deere, supra note 177 at 6.
207. Murphy, Catherine, Cultivating Havana: Urban Agriculture and Food Security in the Years of Crisis, Development Report No.12 (Inst., for Food and Devel. Policy) at 10.
208. Deere, supra note 177, at 6.
209. Golden, Tim, Cuba to Allow All Farmers to Sell Some Food on the Open Market, NY TIMES (Sep. 18, 1994) at 2.
210. Koont, supra note 188, at 18.
211. Id. at 12.
212. ENRÍQUEZ, supra note 150, at 24; Koont, supra note 188, at 13.
213. Murphy, supra note 191, at 13.
214. Altieri, Miguel, et al., The Greening of the "Barrios": Urban Agriculture for Food Security in Cuba, 16 J. AGRIC. & HUMAN VALUES 131, 139 (1999); Murphy, supra note 191 at 21.
215. Koont, supra note 188, at 13.
216. Id.
217. Altieri, supra note 198 at 134.
218. Murphy, supra note 191, at 24.
219. Koont, supra note 188, at 13.
220. Id. The private owner has the option of placing the land in production within six months to avoid appropriation. Id.
221. Id. at 13.
222. Id. at 18.
223. Warwick, supra note 36, at 55.
224. Id.
225. Id.
226. Rosset, supra note 166, at 21.
227. Trimiño, supra note 180, at 90-92.
228. Id. at 92-93.
229. Koont, supra note 188, at 15-16.
230. Murphy, supra note 191, at 31-33.
231. Koont, supra note 188, at 15.
232. ENRÍQUEZ, supra note 150 at 41.
233. Koont, supra note 188, at 19.
234. Murphy, supra note 191, at 10.
235. Id. at 44-45.
236. Public Health Security and 2002 Bioterrorism Act, Pub. L. No. 107-188 § 101 (2002).
237. Id.
238. President Clinton established the Council through Executive Order in 1998. See 63 Fed. Reg. 45661 (Aug. 25, 1998).
239. The Council initially consisted of the Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, and HHS, the Director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Assistant to the President for Science and Technology/Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, the Assistant to the President for Domestic Policy, and the Director of the National Partnership for Reinventing Government. Although the Council issued a strategic plan for food safety, it did not address food security in the plan issued prior to the September 11 attacks. President Bush added the Secretary of the DHS through Executive Order in 2003. See 68 Fed. Reg. 10,619 (Mar. 5, 2003).
240. Public Health Security and 2002 Bioterrorism Act, Pub. L. No. 107-188 § 301 (2002). Title III of the Act deals with the safety and security of the food supply.
241. Id. § 302, codified at 21, U.S.C. § 381(h).
242. HSPDs are available at the DHS website, http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/laws/ editorial-0607.shtm.
243. The White House, Homeland Security Presidential Directive/HSPD-5 (Feb. 28, 2003), http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030228-9.html.
244. Federal Emergency Management Administration (FEMA), NATIONAL INCIDENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 3 (Draft) (Aug. 2007), http://www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord. do?id=2961 ("NIMS Draft") at (15) (stating that NIMS is a "consistent nationwide template to enable federal, state, tribal, and local governments, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations to work together to prepare for, prevent, respond to, recover from, and mitigate the effects of incidents regardless of cause, size, location, or complexity").
245. Id. at 3.
246. Id.
247. Id.
248. Id. at 16. See also FEMA, National Response Framework (Jan. 2008) (NRF Document), http://www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nrf/nrf-core.pdf.
249. NIMS Draft, supra note 227, at 12.
250. Id.
251. FEMA, ESF-II (Jan. 2008), http://www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nrf/nrf-esf- 11.pdf, at 1.
252. Id. at 4. See also USDA Food and Nutrition Service, http://www.fns.usda. gov/disasters/disaster.htm. The USDA's critical infrastructure and key resources protection plan, states that the Farm Services Administration (FSA) and Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS), also contribute to coordination and deliverance of assistance.
253. See USDA, et al., Agriculture and Food, Critical Infrastructure and Key Resources Sector-Specific Plan as input to the national infrastructure protection plan (May 2007) http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/nipp-ssp-ag-food. pdf at 60.
254. ESF-11, supra note 234, at 10. ESF-11 also delineates functions of other supporting agencies for food provision. For example, the Department of Defense (DOD) must assess its available food and food storage capabilities. Id. at 13. DHS "[c]oordinates with the Infrastructure Liaison concerning all issues regarding recovery and restoration of the associated critical infrastructure sector [agriculture], including the allocation of resources ... and private sources of food." Id. at 14. The Department of Justice (DOJ), DHS, and Department of Transportation will control movement of people and things. Id. at 16. Most states and some localities have prepared an ESF -11 for food and agriculture pursuant to the NRF. See, e.g., Colorado State Emergency Operations Plan, Agriculture and Natural Resources Annex, Emergency Support Function #11, at http://dola.colorado.gov/dem/operations/seop2007/esf11- ag&naturalresources.pdf;
255. Georgia Emergency Management Agency, Emergency Support Function 11, Agriculture and Natural Resources (Draft), at http://www.agrosecurity.uga.edu/ annexes/Annex02-ESF11.pdf;
256. South Carolina, Annex 11 (ESF-11): Food Services, at http://www.scemd. org/Plans/SCEOP07/21-Annex-11(FoodServices).pdf;
257. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, EFS-11, at http://www.floridaagemergencies.org/;
258. Ohio Emergency Operations Plan, Emergency Support Function#11, at http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:FCJZgVd-x-sJ:www.ema.ohio.gov/Ohio-EOP/ s-ESF-11-Agriculture.pdf+Ohio+ESF-11&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us;
259. Santa Cruz County, Emergency Response and Recovery Plan, Essential Support Function #11, Food Annex, at http://www.co.santa-cruz.az.us/admin- services/ESF%2011.pdf;
260. Thurston County, Emergency Support Function #11, Food, Water and Donated Goods, at http://www.co.thurston.wa.us/em/esfs/ESF-11-Food-Water.pdf.
261. The D.C. metro region also has prepared an ESF-11. District Response Plan, Emergency Support Function #11, Food, at http://74.125.95.132/search?q= cache: fHVctwCe9dMJ:dcema.dc.gov/dcema/cwp/view,A,1226,Q,537120.asp+D.C. +Metro+ESF-11&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us. Although all state ESF's identified by the authors contemplate a role for the state in food procurement, none consider the role of regional or local food infrastructure in responding to either an acute or chronic food crisis.
262. ESF-11, supra note 234, at 2; FNS, http://www.fns.usda.gov/disasters/ pandemic/default.htm.
263. ESF-11, supra note 234, at 8.
264. FNS, http://www.fns.usda.gov/disasters/pandemic/default.htm.
265. The current household-level food system has tremendous potential. For example, households and community gardens generated roughly $18 billion worth of fruit and vegetables in 1989. Dahlberg, supra note 14, at 82.
266. John D. Sutter, Recession gardens trim grocery bills, teach lessons, CNN ONLINE, http;//www.cnn.com/2009/LIVING/01/01/recession.garden/.
267. Id.
268. Marian Burros, supra note 28.
269. Illinois Public Act 095-0145 (Aug. 14, 2007).
270. The White House, HSPD/HSPD-7 (Dec. 17, 2003), http://www.whitehouse.gov/ news/releases/2003/12/20031217-5.html.
271. Id. at (27)
272. DHS, NIPP (2006) (NIPP), http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/NIPP-Plan. pdf.
273. NRF, supra note 231, at 2; Critical Infrastructure and Key Resources Support Annex, http://www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nrf/nrf-support-cikr.pdf, at 2.
274. NIPP, supra note 247, at 80.
275. HSPD-7, supra note 245, at (18)(a)-(b).
276. Id. at (24)-(35).
277. USDA, et al., Agriculture and Food, Critical Infrastructure and Key Resources Sector-Specific Plan as input to the national infrastructure protection plan (May 2007) (USDA AF-SSP and FDA AF-SSP) http://www.dhs.gov/ xlibrary/assets/nipp-ssp-ag-food.pdf, at 12.
278. USDA-AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 2, 20.
279. FDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 11.
280. This division conforms to the agencies' traditional jurisdictional division between food, meat, poultry and egg products. See generally, Degnan, Frederick H., The Regulation of Food Safety, in 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF LAW AND REGULATION 161-203 (1997) (describing the role of the FDA in food safety regulation);
281. Olsson, Philip C. & Johnson, Dennis R., Meat and Poultry Inspection: Wholesomeness, Integrity, and Productivity, in 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF LAW AND REGULATION 205-236 (1997) (describing the role of the USDA in food safety regulation).
282. USDA AF-SSP at 252.
283. Id. at 15-16.
284. Id. at 16.
285. Id.
286. Id. at 23. FDA AF-SPP, supra note 252, at 16.
287. Agricultural and food assets identified under the USDA's AF-SSPs are compiled in the National Asset Database (NADB). See USDA AF-SPP, supra note 252. FDA uses other databases to collect information on assets within its regulatory jurisdiction. See FDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 24-26.
288. USDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 3 and Appendix 5; FDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 35.
289. USDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 3. FDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 43.
290. USDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 3.
291. Id. at 27; FDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 45-46. How much at-risk these identified assets are is often confidential. USDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 22.
292. Id. at 28. FDA AF-SPP, supra note 252, at 17.
293. USDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 28.
294. DHS Grants (http://www.dhs.gov/xgovt/grants/index.shtm);
295. FEMA grants (http://www.fema.gov/government/grant/index.shtm). Both the USDA and FDA have implemented the ALERT food defense awareness initiative, which can apply at all stages of the food chain. See FDA AF-SSP, supra note 252 at 47. Components of ALERT include: assure, look, employees, reports and threat. ALERT advises food suppliers to assure themselves that they source supplies and ingredients from safe and secure sources, and to look after the security of the ingredients and products within the facility. It further requires that food suppliers know the persons who go in and out of the facility, to be ready to report on the security of the facility, and to know how to report security threats. Id.
296. USDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 59.
297. Id. at 60 (emphasis added).
298. Id. at 63.
299. Id. at 67. For a list of projects on systems analysis, see http://www.ncfpd.umn.edu/research/systems-strategies.cfm. The food and agriculture SSAs have organized their R & D into specific areas, including response and recovery, and advanced design of infrastructure and systems. USDA AF-SSP, supra note 252, at 64. In addition, FDA's CFSAN conducts scientific research relates to prevention and mitigation strategies, and testing in conjunction with its Food Defense Research Initiative, providing another opportunity for food system research. Id. at 72, 75.
300. Id. at 64.
301. Food, Conservation and Energy Act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-234, § 14113, 122 Stat. 923 (2008).
302. The White House, HSPD/HSPD-8 (Dec. 17, 2003), http://www.whitehouse.gov/ news/releases/2003/12/20031217-6.html.
303. For a summary of the directive and how it has been implemented, see DHS, HSPD-8 Overview, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/odp/assessments/hspd8.htm.
304. DHS, National Preparedness Guidelines (Sept. 2007), http://www.dhs.gov/ xlibrary/assets/National-Preparedness-Guidelines.pdf.
305. Id. at 2.
306. Id.
307. Id. at 4.
308. Id. at 20-21.
309. Id. at 31-32.
310. Id. at 4.
311. Id. at 33.
312. Id. at 10, 20.
313. Id. at 31-32.
314. FEMA, Are You Ready? An In-Depth Guide to Citizen Preparedness (Aug. 2004), http://www.fema.gov/pdf/areyouready/areyouready-full.pdf, at 35.
315. DHS, DHS Announces Release of Application Guidance for over $3 Billion in Grant Programs (Feb. 1, 2008), http://www.dhs.gov/xnews/releases/pr- 1201882070387.shtm.
316. http://www.citizencorps.gov/programs/.
317. http://www.cns.gov/.
318. See Section II.B., supra, discussing the Victory Garden Program.
319. See supra note 119-120 and accompanying text.
320. See Joanne F. Guthrie et. al., Role of Food Prepared Away from Home in the American Diet, 1977-78 versus 1994-96: Changes and Consequences, 34 J. NUTRITION EDUCATION & BEHAVIOR 140 (2004).
321. FDA, Food Protection Plan: An Integrated Strategy for Protecting the Nation's Food Supply 4 (Nov. 2007), http://www.fda.gov/oc/initiatives/advance/ food/plan.pdf.
322. [hereinafter FDA, Food Protection Plan).
323. See The Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA), 21 U.S.C. §§ 601-691; Poultry Products Inspection Act (PPIA), 21 U.S.C. §§ 451-471; and Egg Products Inspection Act (EPIA), 21 U.S.C. §§ 1031-1056.
324. See http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/∼dms/defterr.html.
325. FDA, Risk Assessment for Food Terrorism and Other Food Safety Concerns (Oct. 7 2003) (FDA Risk Assessment), http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/∼dms/rabtact. html.
326. Roberts, supra note 12, at 208. See also Endres, supra note 31, at 130-135 (discussing recent FDA food safety response plans).
327. Foreign facilities must only register if no further processing or packaging is done outside the U.S. 21 U.S.C. § 350d(b)(3)(A).
328. 2002 Bioterrorism Act § 305, codified at 21 U.S.C. § 350d; 70 Fed. Reg. 57505 (Oct. 3, 2005) (FDA's implementing regulations), codified at 21 C.F.R. § 1.25-1.406. This includes facilities jointly registered with FDA and USDA. 21 C.F.R. § 1.226(g). Farms are not subject to the registration requirement unless food that is stored or processed on site is under different ownership (such as a cooperative or food processing company). 21 C.F.R. § 1.227(3)(i). Retail establishments and restaurants are not subject to registration if its primary function is to sell food directly to consumers. 21 C.F.R. § 1.226(c)-(d); 21 C.F.R. § 1.227 (10)-(11). Central kitchens and commissaries, therefore, are not exempt. The registration contains basic information regarding ownership, contact information, and product type. Facilities also must maintain certain records. 2002 Bioterrorism Act § 306, codified at 21 U.S.C. § 350c; 21 C.F.R. § 1.326-1.368.
329. 2002 Bioterrorism Act §307, codified at 21 U.S.C. § 381(m); 21 C.F.R. § 1.276-1.285.
330. 2002 Bioterrorism Act § 303, codified at 21 U.S.C. § 334; implementing regulations at 69 Fed. Reg. 31659-31705 (Jun. 4, 2004) (codified in parts 1, 10 and 16 of 21 C.F.R.). See also Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP), FDA sets procedures for detaining contaminated food (May 24, 2004).
331. FDA, Food Protection Plan, supra note 293.
332. Id. at 1. See also Endres, A. Bryan, United States Food Law Update, 3 J. FOOD L. & POLICY 253, 276-280 (2007) (discussing FDA responses to E. coli and melamine).
333. FDA, Food protection plan, supra note 293, at 8.
334. Id. at 11. FDA hopes to shift some of the inspection burden to regulatory authorities in exporting countries by requiring electronic import certificates for high-risk foods. Id. at 19-20. FDA will seek authority from Congress to prohibit food imports when its access to the foreign facility for inspection has been denied, limited, or delayed. Id. at 20. In order to detect contamination earlier, FDA will improve reporting systems and deploy improved screening tools. Id.
335. Id. at 11.
336. See Letter from FDA to Food Manufacturers Regarding Legal Responsibilities for the Safety of Food Ingredients (May 4, 2007), at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/∼dms/proltr.html.
337. HACCP refers to the preferred food safety measure using; science-based controls from raw material to finished product. See FDA, HACCP: A State-of-the-Art Approach to Food Safety, http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/∼lrd/ bghaccp.html.
338. See also Fortin, Neil, The Hang-up with HACCP: The Resistance to Translating Science into Food Safety Law, 58 FOOD & DRUG L. J. 565 (2003), (describing industry disincentives to adopting HACCP).
339. FDA, Food Protection Plan, supra note 293 at 15.
340. Id. at 18.
341. Id. at 22. FDA proposes eliminating the need to show adulteration. It must currently demonstrate both threat and adulteration. Id. For a critical discussion of FDA's current recall authority, see Roberts, Michael T., Mandatory Recall Authority: A Sensible and Minimalist Approach to Improving Food Safety, 59 FOOD & DRUG L.J. 563 (2004).
342. See Rasco, supra note 7, at 89 (noting that FDA regulations promulgated pursuant to the 2002 Bioterrorism Act require companies to "establish new and relatively complicated procedures").
343. See supra notes 233-244.
344. http://www.csrees.usda.gov/nea/ag-biosecurity/ag-biosecurity.cfm.
345. See Extension Disaster Education Network, http://www.eden.lsu.edu/.
346. See supra note 287-288 and accompanying text (discussing CPPs).
347. Of course, some of the Cuban initiatives, such as redisttibution of privately-owned fallow land to those willing to engage in agricultural production, would violate numerous Constitutional principles. Other legal issues, such as relaxation of zoning measures to encourage (or even allow) agricultural production within urban/suburban areas, are a relatively simple matter of amending city/county ordinances. Changing restrictive covenants within many planned suburban communities, may require more legal finesse, but remain a feasible option.
348. See Benjamin, supra note 145, at 60.
349. See supra note 175 and accompanying text.
350. See supra notes 197-211 and accompanying test.
351. See, e.g., Rutgers Urban Gardening Program, http://essex.njaes.rutgers. edu/ug/.
352. USDA, AMS Overview, http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/!ut/p/-s.7-0-A/7-0- 1OB?contentidonly=true&contentid=AMS-Agency-Splash.xml&x=13&y=10.
353. See IFOAM, THE WORLD OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE: STATISTICS AND EMERGING TRENDS 16 (2008).
354. See Endres, A. Bryan, An Awkward Adolescence in the Organics Industry: Coming to Terms with Big Organic and Other Legal Challenges for the Industry's Next Ten Years, 12 DRAKE J. AGRIC. 17 (Spring 2007) (discussing history of the organic industry).
355. See supra note 93-96 and accompanying text discussing rationing implementation during World War II and supra note 158-163 and accompanying text discussing rationing implementing in Cuba.
356. The FBI is an agency within the Department of Justice (DOJ).
357. SPPA Initiative, Second Year Status Report, (July 2006 to Sept. 2007), http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/∼acrobat/agroter6.pdf, at 4.
358. Id. at 5.
359. Id. at 7-8.
360. Id. at 9. FSIS has issued a series of guidance to various industries under its jurisdiction for the development of such plans. See FSIS Guidance Materials, http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Food-Defense-&-Emergency-Response/ Guidance-Materials/index.asp;
361. see e.g., FSIS, Elements of a Functional Food Defense Plan, http://www.fsis.usda.gov/pdf/Elements-of-a-Food-Defense-Plan.pdf.
362. National Association of State Departments of Agriculture and SES, Inc., Emergency Response Plan, Food Emergency Template, Version 1.0 (Feb. 9, 2006) (NASDA Template), http://www.nasda.org/File.aspx?id=11167.
363. Id. at v. A food emergency can result from natural disaster or man-made events, or intentional or unintentional contamination of food. Id.
364. Id. at Appendix B-5. See generally, Emergency Management Assistance Compact, How Does EMAC Work? http://www.emacweb.org/?142.
365. National Emergency Management Association, 2008 Disaster Response Mission Packages, http://www.emacweb.org/?1589.
366. Id. at 71.
367. NASDA Template, supra note 331 at Appendix B-3.
368. Id.
369. See supra note 135 and accompanying text.
370. See supra note 136 and accompanying text.
371. See supra note 195-209 and accompanying text.
372. See supra note 217-219 and accompanying text.